・47 北里大學 2014 (2) 1パラ

     Scientists have long known that specific genes are associated with a number of serious diseases and birth defects.  Scientists have used this knowledge to develop tests to identify defective genes, which are the result of mutation: a natural process that alters genetic material.  Researchers have identified a large number of genes that are responsible for life-threatening conditions, such as cystic fibrosis^*1 and Huntington’s disease^*2.  (  1  ) these genes are identified, genetic tests for many such diseases become available.  These tests can indicate if a person has a specific defective gene.  By 2011, researchers had developed more than 2,000 genetic tests, which allow doctors to inform patients if they have inherited these genes and if they risk passing them on to their children.

注：

^*1cystic fibrosis 「嚢胞性纖維症」肺、膵臓、消化管、汗腺などの外分泌腺の機能が損なわれる遺伝性疾患

^*2Huntington’s disease 「ハンチントン病」常染色体優性遺伝によって発病する神経変性疾患

 

問１　本文中の(1)～(5)の空欄に入る最も適切なものを、それぞれ①～⑤の中から一つずつ選びなさい。

(1)  ①  Hence   ②  In order that   ③  Once   ④  Unless   ⑤  Whereas

 

 

1.1  Scientists have long known that specific genes are associated with a number of serious diseases and birth defects.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.1 特定の遺傳子が相當數の重い疾患や先天性（/出生時）缺損に結びついてゐることを、科學者たちは長きにわたり承知してきた。

 

[語句]

1.1     a number of ～         （漠然とした數を指して）若干數の～ / 相當數の～

 

1.2  Scientists have used this knowledge to develop tests to identify defective genes, which are the result of mutation: a natural process that alters genetic material.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.2 科學者たちは缺陷遺傳子を識別する檢査を開發するためこの知識を活用してきたのであるが、缺陷遺傳子は突然變異、つまり遺傳子構成物質を變質させる自然な過程（である突然變異）の結果（生じるもの）である。

 

1.3  Researchers have identified a large number of genes that are responsible for life-threatening conditions, such as cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.3 研究者たちは、（たとへば）嚢胞性纖維症やハンチントン病など、生命を脅すやうな容態の原因となる（/を招く）多數の遺傳子を特定してきた。

 

[語句]

1.3     a large number of ～    多數の～

1.3     such as ～                  たとへば～など

 

1.4  Once these genes are identified, genetic tests for many such diseases become available.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.4 これらの遺傳子がいつたん特定されると、さうした多くの疾患用の遺傳子檢査が利用できるやうになる。

 

1.5  These tests can indicate if a person has a specific defective gene.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.5 かうした檢査により、人が特定の缺陷遺傳子を持つてゐるかどうかを示すことが可能である。

 

1.6  By 2011, researchers had developed more than 2,000 genetic tests, which allow doctors to inform patients if they have inherited these genes and if they risk passing them on to their children.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.6 2011年までに、研究者たちは2000以上の遺傳子檢査を開發してをり、それらにより醫師は患者に對し、かうした遺傳子を受け繼いてゐるかどうか、そしてそれらを敢へて（/覺悟の上で）子どもたちに讓り渡すかどうか（について）知らせる（/情報を提供する）ことができる。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・過去完了時制： 〈had＋過去分詞〉のかたちで、①過去のある時點までの動作や状態の「完了」「結果」「經驗」「繼續」②過去のある時點より前の動作・出來事（大過去） を表はします。ここでは、2011年といふ過去の時點までに2000以上の檢査の開發が完了してゐた、と述べてゐます。

 

[語句]

1.6     more than ～             ～以上

1.6     pass on ～ (to …)/pass ～ on (to …)               ～を（…に）讓り渡す

 

 

問１　本文中の(1)～(5)の空欄に入る最も適切なものを、それぞれ①～⑤の中から一つずつ選びなさい。

(1)  ①  Hence（そのゆゑに～/したがつて～）   ②  In order that（～する目的で）   ③  Once（いつたん～すれば）   ④  Unless（～しないかぎり）   ⑤  Whereas（～であるのに對して）

【解答】

③

・47 北里大學 2014 (1) 全文

  北里大學で2014年に出題された問題です。月曜日と金曜日に、パラグラフ毎に解説して參ります。

次の英文を読み、下記の設問に答えなさい。

     Scientists have long known that specific genes are associated with a number of serious diseases and birth defects.  Scientists have used this knowledge to develop tests to identify defective genes, which are the result of mutation: a natural process that alters genetic material.  Researchers have identified a large number of genes that are responsible for life-threatening conditions, such as cystic fibrosis^*1 and Huntington’s disease^*2.  (  1  ) these genes are identified, genetic tests for many such diseases become available.  These tests can indicate if a person has a specific defective gene.  By 2011, researchers had developed more than 2,000 genetic tests, which allow doctors to inform patients if they have inherited these genes and if they risk passing them on to their children.

     This testing is a significant milestone in genetic research, because these tests provide people who have genetic defects (  2  ) important information.  However, the tests also introduce complex ethical issues.  If patients find out that they have a dangerous genetic defect, they may not know what to do.  Their decision will depend on several factors.  First, in some cases, identification of the gene only suggests the likelihood that the patient will develop the disease associated with that gene.  For example, women who have inherited the harmful BRCA gene mutation^*3 have a much higher chance of developing breast cancer than other women do.  (  3  ), it is likely that women with the genetic mutation will develop cancer, but it is not certain.  A second important factor in the decision is whether there is a treatment, and if so, what kind of treatment.  In the case of BRCA gene mutation, a frequent treatment is major surgery before the cancer develops.  Women who test positive for the mutation must decide between this treatment and the possibility of dying of cancer.

     Unfortunately, for some genetic diseases, there is no treatment, which ₍₆₎gives rise to even more complex ethical issues.  Would patients want to know that they are going to die young or become very sick if there is no treatment?  Some may want to know so that they can prepare themselves.  If there is a chance they could pass the disease to their future children, they may decide not to have children.  For others, however, the news could ruin their lives. They might prefer not to know about their condition and enjoy their lives while they are healthy.  So, they may decide not to get genetic tests at all.

     Most researchers expect that the next step will be gene therapy that repairs or replaces the defective gene.  This would mean, for example, that BRCA patients could receive a treatment that actually changes their genetic material.  If that came true, most people would probably decide to take genetic tests.

     At the end of the 20th century, researchers began to develop treatments for a variety of life-threatening genetic diseases.  The early results seemed very ₍₇₎encouraging, and, consequently, people with genetic diseases became hopeful that they would soon see a cure.  In 2000, for example, French doctors treated babies with a rare genetic disorder, commonly ₍₈₎referred to as “bubble boy disease^*4,” that affected their immune systems.  They injected the babies with a healthy replacement gene.  Ten months later, the children’s immune systems appeared completely normal.

     To these early achievements, however, considerable problems and limitations were attached.  Results were (  4  ); success occurred in only a small number of patients with rare conditions.  Sometimes the therapy caused more problems than it solved.  For example, in the French case, several of the children developed leukemia^*5, one of whom died.  In addition, enthusiastic researchers sometimes ₍₉₎underestimated the time it would take for discoveries in the laboratory to become practical therapies, a difficulty that persists today, often leading to disappointment and a lack of confidence in the field of gene therapy.

     In spite of these (  5  ), many scientists pursued their research in gene therapy.  They believed this form of treatment still held great potential.  However, three basic technical challenges ₍₁₀₎stood in the way of their progress.  First, gene therapy is not like other kinds of treatments in which a patient can take a pill that sends medicine throughout the body.  It must be introduced into specific genes.  Second, scientists need a way to deliver the therapy directly into a cell.  In many cases, they have used a virus to do this, but they have to be sure that the virus will not harm the patient.  Finally, they have to be sure that the new or repaired gene will not “turn off” after it is introduced into the cell.

     After years of research and trials, scientists had made considerable progress in solving these problems.  In the first years of the 21st century, positive results began to emerge, arousing renewed interest in the field.  In a small clinical trial in 2007, patients with Parkinson’s disease^*6 received genes for production of an important protein that they lacked.  All 12 patients experienced an improvement in their condition with no negative effects.  In 2011, researchers successfully treated patients with hemophilia^*7, a disease that impairs the body’s ability to clot blood, by injecting them with the healthy form of a defective gene.  These were major achievements, but they are particularly exciting because the treatments are for major diseases that affect large numbers of people.

     All of these positive results have revived the public’s interest in gene therapy.  Many researchers and scientists have renewed their belief in the prospect of its enormous potential to treat killer diseases like cancer, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, etc.  However, they are now more careful to caution patients and society that many effective genetic therapies may still be years, or decades, in the future.  [933 words]

     出典： Making Connections 3: Skills and Strategies for Academic Reading, 3rd Edition by Kenneth J. Pakenham, Jo McEntire and Jessica Williams, pp. 27-29 © Cambridge University Press 2013.

 

注：

^*1cystic fibrosis 「嚢胞性纖維症」肺、膵臓、消化管、汗腺などの外分泌腺の機能が損なわれる遺伝性疾患

^*2Huntington’s disease 「ハンチントン病」常染色体優性遺伝によって発病する神経変性疾患

^*3BRCA gene mutation「がん抑制遺伝子変異」BRCA gene = breast cancer (susceptibility) gene

^*4bubble boy disease「バブルボーイ症候群、重症複合免疫不全症」アデノシンデアミナーゼという酵素の欠損に起因する免疫不全疾患

^*5leukemia「白血病」血球を作る細胞（幹細胞）が、骨髄中でがん化して無制限に増殖し続ける病気

^*6Parkinson’s disease 「パーキンソン病」中脳黒質にあるドーパミン神経細胞が脱落することによる中枢神経系疾患

^*7hemophilia 「血友病」止血に必要な凝固因子が不足するため、いったん出血すると血が止まりにくい病気

 

問１　本文中の(1)～(5)の空欄に入る最も適切なものを、それぞれ①～⑤の中から一つずつ選びなさい。

(1)  ①  Hence   ②  In order that   ③  Once   ④  Unless   ⑤  Whereas

(2)  ①  against   ②  for   ③  into   ④  off   ⑤  with

(3)  ①  Besides  ②  Instead   ③  Nevertheless   ④  Otherwise   ⑤  Thus

(4)  ①  cost-effective   ②  mixed   ③  punctual   ④  reflective   ⑤ reluctant

(5)  ①  advances   ②  emissions   ③  praises   ④  setbacks   ⑤  utilities

 

問２　本文中の下線部(6)～(10)の語(句)に最も近い意味のものを、それぞれ①～⑤の中から一つずつ選びなさい。

(6)  give rise to

①  brings about   ②  cuts down   ③  speeds up   ④  takes the place of   ⑤  turns away

(7)  encouraging

①  absurd   ②  constant   ③  depressing   ④  promising   ⑤  unfavorable

(8)  referred to as

①  called   ②  prejudiced   ③  regulated   ④  unpredictable   ⑤  worsened

(9)  underestimated

①  held high   ②  incorrectly judged   ③  put emphasis on   ④  took pride in   ⑤  thought twice about

(10)  stood in the way of

①  turned from   ②  ensured   ③  paralleled   ④  relied on   ⑤  blocked

 

問３　下記の(11)～(15)の各問に対する答えとして最も適切なものを、それぞれ①～⑤の中から一つずつ選びなさい。

(11)  According to the reading, what is the final target of developing gene therapies?

  ①  Permanent repair or replacement of defective genes.

  ②  Identification of defective genes.

  ③  Development of genetic tests to identify people with defective genes.

  ④  Development of a delivery system in which no viruses are used.

  ⑤  Development of a pill that sends medicine throughout the body.

(12)  According to the reading, which is an example of how genetic tests can be helpful?

  ①  By enhancing people’s immune systems.

  ②  By protecting normal genes.

  ③  By causing complex ethical problems.

  ④  By preventing people from knowing whether or not they will have genetic diseases.

  ⑤  By helping people make informed decisions about having children.

(13)  Which of the following (A) to (E) are described in the reading as the practical challenges that genetic researchers face in developing therapies?  Choose all of the three options which apply.

  (A)  They have to find a good way to introduce the therapy into the cell.

  (B)  They have to make sure that the new or repaired genes remain active.

  (C)  They have to make sure that the patient’s blood is able to clot after injuries.

  (D)  They have to be sure that the viruses to be used for the therapy are not harmful.

  (E)  They have to convince more medical practitioners to take part in the therapy.

  ①  (A), (B), and (C)  ②  (A), (B), and (D)   ③  (A), (B), and (E)   ④  (B), (C), and (D)   ⑤  (B), (D), and (E)

(14)  Which of the following is in accordance with the reading? 

  ①  Women who have inherited the BRCA gene mutation are less likely to develop breast cancer than those who haven’t.

  ②  Several French children suffering from a rare genetic disease were injected with a healthy replacement gene in 2000 but none of them survived the treatment.

  ③  Neither side effects nor unexpected fatal accidents have happened as the results of gene therapy.

  ④  The time associated with developing practical gene therapies is a problem that has not yet been completely overcome.

  ⑤  It was proven that patients with hemophilia would not benefit from gene therapy because the disease has no relation to their genes.

(15)  According to the reading, which statement best summarizes the state of gene therapy today?

  ①  It has been so successful that any kind of gene therapy has become available anywhere on Earth.

  ②  It is likely that only patients with rare genetic diseases will ever benefit from genetic research.

  ③  Recent success has allowed people to expect increased availability of genetic treatments in the years to come.

  ④  There have been enough failures to cause serious doubts about the overall value of gene therapy.

  ⑤  The age when BRCA patients were forced to decide between major surgery and the possibilities of dying of cancer has already ended.

 

・英文讀解のヒント (12) 《前置詞＋關係代名詞＋to-不定詞》

英文讀解のヒント (12)《前置詞＋關係代名詞＋to-不定詞》

1  次の英文を音讀または默讀しながら意味をとらへ、下線部については意味を日本語で言つて、または書いてみませう。（※讀み方がわからない語はあとで辭書で調べておきませう）

   How is it that just reading alone can bring all of these benefits?  Extensive reading allows students to see a lot of the language in context over and over again, giving them the exposure they need to understand, organize, remember, and use it.  It builds and strengthens fundamental vocabulary, and grammar knowledge.  In short, extensive reading provides a very strong foundation on which to build all language skills.

（ 關東學院大學 2011 9パラ； 2012年10月19日掲載）

 

2  下線部の解説

2.1  a very strong foundation / on which to build all language skills： 名詞のあとに＜前置詞＋關係代名詞＋to-不定詞＞のかたちが續いてゐます。普通の關係代名詞節のやうに、前の名詞についての説明や情報をつけ加へるわけですが、不定詞句で簡略に濟ませてゐますから、意味がやや曖昧になつてゐます。不定詞の「何かを指し示す」といふはたらきに着目しつつ意味をさぐります。

  前の名詞は「とても堅固な基礎」です。on which と來ますから「とても堅固な基礎の上に…（何をするのか…指し示すのは）to build all language skills…「あらゆる言語スキルを築く」…さういふ基礎です。基礎は基礎でも「スキルを築く基礎」だと説明を補つてゐるわけです。例へば、……a very strong foundation on which you/they can build all language skills といつた意味を不定詞を使つて簡略に表現したものと言へませう。

■諳誦例文

13        He has a lot of friends with whom to consult.

               彼には相談できる友人がたくさんゐる。

□參考例文

※口語文體では、關係代名詞をとり、前置詞を後につけます。

13.2     He has a lot of friends to consult with.

               彼には相談できる友人がたくさんゐる。

※普通の關係代名詞節で示します。

13.3     He has a lot of friends with whom he can consult.

               彼には相談できる友人がたくさんゐる。

  このかたちについての解説や例文は「不定詞の形容詞的用法」や「關係代名詞」の項に載つてゐます。このかたちでは前置詞が關係代名詞の直前に置かれます（後ろには置きません）。

 

3  意味把握チェック

  讀むだけでかうした利點がすべてもたらされるのは（いつたい）どういふ風にしてなのか。學生は、多讀によつて、ある文脈で使はれる言語の多く（の表現）を何度も繰り返して眺め、その言語を理解し、整理し（/系統だて）、記憶し、使用するために必要な多く（の表現）に觸れることになる。さうすることで基礎的な語彙力が培はれ強化されるし、文法知識についても同樣である。手短に言へば、多讀はすべての言語技能を築きあげるとてもしつかりした基礎をもたらしてくれるのである。

 

4  意味把握チェックの下線部を參考にして、元の英文に戻してみませう。

 

※下線部以外の解説については上記日付のブログ記事をご參照ください。畫面右の Back Numbers で該當の月・年をクリックし、Calendar で該當日をクリックしてご利用ください。

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (7) 6パラ

(6)  Environmental degradation through the lens of satoyama landscapes has also drawn attention to the food and fuel debate in Japan.  In 1950, 45.5% of the labor force was involved in agriculture.  It has since shrunk to 7%, approximately 60% of whom are over 65 years of age, and the agricultural industry now accounts for a mere 1.3% of the GDP¹¹.  In the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations － Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate having dropped to 39% － land use, resource management and the weak state of food and fuel security are of growing concern.

  注  ¹¹GDP  国内総生産（1年間に国内で新たに生産された財・サービスの価値の合計）

 

 

【設問】

問8  In paragraph (6), the underlined word “It” at the beginning of sentence 3, refers to the [     ].

イ  lens of satoyama landscapes

ロ  food and fuel debate

ハ  most food import-dependant country

ニ  labor force involved in agriculture

 

問9  According to paragraph (6), which of the following is NOT true?  [     ].

イ  Japan is the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations

ロ  Currently over half the number of farmers are over 65 years of age

ハ  Since 1950 the labor force involved in agriculture has increased from 7% to 45.5%

ニ  Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate dropped to 39%

 

問10  According to paragraph (6), [     ] is NOT of growing concern.

イ  resource management

ロ  food and fuel security

ハ  land use

ニ  the labor force involved in industry

 

 

6.1  Environmental degradation through the lens of satoyama landscapes has also drawn attention to the food and fuel debate in Japan.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.1 里山（相）のレンズを通してみた環境の退廢により、日本の食糧や燃料に關する議論への注意も喚起されてきた。

 

6.2  In 1950, 45.5% of the labor force was involved in agriculture.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.2 1950年には、勞働人口の45.5％が農業に關はつてゐた。

 

6.3  It has since shrunk to 7%, approximately 60% of whom are over 65 years of age, and the agricultural industry now accounts for a mere 1.3% of the GDP.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.3 以來それが7％に縮小したが、そのおよそ60％が65歳を超えてゐる。そして今や農業はGDP（/國内總生産）の1.3％を占めてゐるにすぎない。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・關係代名詞（目的格）： whom は who の目的格で、6.3の 7% (of the labor force) を指してゐます。（※2012年6月6日付の關聯記事があります。畫面右の Back Numbers で該當の月・年をクリックし、Calendar で該當日をクリックしてご利用ください）

 

[語句]

6.3     account for ～           ～の割合を占める/～の（理由を）説明する

 

6.4  In the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations － Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate having dropped to 39% － land use, resource management and the weak state of food and fuel security are of growing concern.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.4 （先進）工業國中で最も食糧輸入に依存する（この）國－日本の食糧自給率は39％まで下がつてゐる－において、土地利用や資源管理、そして食糧・燃料の安全保障が弱い状態については懸念が深まつて（/關心が高まつて）ゐる。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・〈of＋抽象名詞〉： このかたちは形容詞や副詞のはたらきをします。例としては、of no use (=useless 役に立たない) / of course (もちろん) など。

 

 

【設問】

問8  In paragraph (6), the underlined word “It” at the beginning of sentence 3, refers to the [     ]. （第６パラグラフで、第３文の最初の下線部を施した It は～のことを言つてゐる）

イ  lens of satoyama landscapes （里山（相）のレンズ）

ロ  food and fuel debate （食糧と燃料に關する議論）

ハ  most food import-dependant country （食糧を最も輸入に頼る國）

ニ  labor force involved in agriculture （農業に關はる勞働人口）

【解答】

ニ

 

問9  According to paragraph (6), which of the following is NOT true?  [     ]. （第６パラグラフによると、次のどれが眞實ではないか）

イ  Japan is the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations （日本は（先進）工業國中で最も食糧輸入に依存する國である）

ロ  Currently over half the number of farmers are over 65 years of age （現在は、農業者の半數以上が65歳を超えてゐる）

ハ  Since 1950 the labor force involved in agriculture has increased from 7% to 45.5% （1950年以來、農業關聯の勞働人口は7％から45.5％に増加してきてゐる）

ニ  Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate dropped to 39% （日本の食糧自給率は39％に落ちた）

【解答】

ハ

 

問10  According to paragraph (6), [     ] is NOT of growing concern. （第６パラグラフによると、～については懸念が深まつてゐない）

イ  resource management （資源管理）

ロ  food and fuel security （食糧と燃料についての安全保障）

ハ  land use （土地利用）

ニ  the labor force involved in industry （産業に關はる勞働人口）

【解答】

ニ

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (6) 5パラ

(5)  Landscape transformation often mirrors social and economic changes.  How have satoyama landscapes been altered as Japan has gone from an agrarian⁸ society, sustained by locally managed and produced bioresources, to an industrialized urban society dependant on imported fossil fuels and associated products?  According to leading satoyama landscape ecologists, the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s led to two distinctive patterns of degradation⁹.  Satoyama landscapes disappeared as urban sprawl¹⁰ and large scale development changed the traditional rural landscapes.  On the other hand, in rural areas far from expanding cities, depopulation combined with aging of the residents has resulted in the abandonment of secondary woodland and farmland and the resulting underuse of bioresources.

  注  ⁸agrarian  農業の  ⁹degradation  退廃  ¹⁰urban sprawl  都市スプロール（都市化が徐々に無秩序に広がっていくこと）

 

 

【設問】

問6  According to paragraph (5), the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s did NOT lead to [     ].

イ  a change in traditional rural landscapes

ロ  expanding cities

ハ  population growth in rural areas far from cities

ニ  urban sprawl and large scale development

 

問7  According to paragraph (5), one of the two patterns of satoyama degradation was the [     ].

イ  increased dependence on imported fossil fuel

ロ  underuse of bioresources

ハ  disappearance of urban sprawl

ニ  aging of urban residents

 

 

5.1  Landscape transformation often mirrors social and economic changes.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.1 地形の變容はしばしば社會や經濟の變化を反映する。

 

5.2  How have satoyama landscapes been altered as Japan has gone from an agrarian society, sustained by locally managed and produced bioresources, to an industrialized urban society dependant on imported fossil fuels and associated products?

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.2 日本が、農業社會（地域で管理・生産される生物資源により支へられる）から、輸入化石燃料とそれに結びついた産品（/關聯製品）に頼る産業都市社會へと移行するに際して、里山（相）はどのやうに變へられてきたのか。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・文構造について： 過去分詞句 sustained ～は an agrarian society の説明、形容詞句 dependant ～は an industrialized urban society の説明として置かれてゐるやうに見えます。

 

5.3  According to leading satoyama landscape ecologists, the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s led to two distinctive patterns of degradation.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.3 指導的な里山（相）生態學者の言ふところによると、1960年代の燃料及び肥料の大變革により、ふたつの際立つた退廢パターン（が生ずる）に到つた。

 

[語句]

5.3     according to ～         ～のいふところによれば / ～に應じて

5.3     lead to ～                   （事が）（ある結果：～）に到る

 

5.4  Satoyama landscapes disappeared as urban sprawl and large scale development changed the traditional rural landscapes.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.4 都市スプロール（/都市の無秩序擴大）と大規模開發が昔ながらの田園の樣相を變貌させるに際して（/つれて）、里山（相）は姿を消した。

 

5.5  On the other hand, in rural areas far from expanding cities, depopulation combined with aging of the residents has resulted in the abandonment of secondary woodland and farmland and the resulting underuse of bioresources.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.5 他方、擴大中の都市から遠い田園地帶では、住人の高齡化と組み合はさつた人口減少により、二次森や農地が放棄され、結果的に生物資源利用が減少すること（/結果）となつてゐる。

 

[語句]

5.5     on the other hand    他方/別の面から言へば

5.5     result in ～                 ～に終はる / ～に歸着する/～といふ結果になる

 

 

【設問】

問6  According to paragraph (5), the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s did NOT lead to [     ]. （第５パラグラフによると、1960年代の燃料及び肥料の大變革によつて～といふ結果には到らなかつた）

イ  a change in traditional rural landscapes （昔ながらの田園風景の變化）

ロ  expanding cities （都市の擴大）

ハ  population growth in rural areas far from cities （都市から遠い田園地帶の人工増加）

ニ  urban sprawl and large scale development （都市スプロールと大規模開發）

【解答】

ハ

 

問7  According to paragraph (5), one of the two patterns of satoyama degradation was the [     ]. （第５パラグラフによると、里山退廢のふたつのパターンのひとつは～であつた）

イ  increased dependence on imported fossil fuel （輸入化石燃料への益々の依存）

ロ  underuse of bioresources （生物資源利用の減少）

ハ  disappearance of urban sprawl （都市スプロールの消滅）

ニ  aging of urban residents （都市住人の高齡化）

【解答】

ロ

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (5) 4パラ

(4)  Interest in the satoyama landscape and its recognition as an example of a sustainable system have spread beyond conservation ecology circles to include policy makers and citizens concerned with the socio-cultural⁷ and environmental impacts of contemporary lifestyles.  This growing interest is reflective of the gradual shift in focus of the nature conservation movement.  Where once there was an emphasis specifically on conserving designated protected zones, there is now recognition that human intervention is an important element.

  注  ⁷socio-cultural  社会文化的な 

【設問】

問5  According to paragraph (4), the focus of the nature conservation movement has shifted from [     ].

イ  recognizing the importance of human intervention to conserving protected areas

ロ  interest in satoyama landscape to developing contemporary lifestyles

ハ  developing sustainable systems to influencing policy makers and citizens

ニ  conserving protected areas to recognizing the importance of human intervention

 

 

 

4.1  Interest in the satoyama landscape and its recognition as an example of a sustainable system have spread beyond conservation ecology circles to include policy makers and citizens concerned with the socio-cultural and environmental impacts of contemporary lifestyles.

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.1 里山（相）への關心と持續可能なシステムの例としての里山認識は、自然環境保護を旨とする生態學の領域を超えて廣がつてをり、現代の暮しぶり（/ライフスタイル）による社會文化的な影響や環境への影響に關心をもつ政策立案者と市民を含めるまでになつてゐる。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・不定詞の副詞的用法： have spread と述べて置いて、その結果どういふ状態になつてゐるのかについて、不定詞の句（to include～）が説明を補つてゐます。

 

4.2  This growing interest is reflective of the gradual shift in focus of the nature conservation movement.

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.2 かうした關心の高まりは、自然保護運動の焦點の變化（/轉換）が徐々に起きてゐることの反映である。

 

4.3  Where once there was an emphasis specifically on conserving designated protected zones, there is now recognition that human intervention is an important element.

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.3 かつて指定された保護區域の保護を專ら（/にはつきりと限定して）強調してゐたところに、現在では、人間の介在（/人間による介入）が重要な要素であるといふ認識がある。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・ where は接續詞で「～のところに」「～のところで」といつたやうに副詞節を導きます。ここでは抽象的な「場」を示してゐます。

・同格（名詞＋名詞節）： ここでは recognition と that 節が竝べて置かれ、that 節が recognition の説明をしてゐます。

 

[語句]

 4.3 designated   [dézignèitid]  [發音注意]

 4.3 human intervention   例へば、里山で言へば「間伐」や「下草刈」などのことを言つてゐるのでせう。

 

 

【設問】

問5  According to paragraph (4), the focus of the nature conservation movement has shifted from [     ]. （第４パラグラフによると、自然保護運動の焦點は～（から）～變化してきてゐる）

イ  recognizing the importance of human intervention to conserving protected areas （人間介入の重要性認識から保護區域の保存へと）

ロ  interest in satoyama landscape to developing contemporary lifestyles （里山（相）への關心から現代のライフスタイル開發へと）

ハ  developing sustainable systems to influencing policy makers and citizens （持續可能なシステム開發から政策立案者や市民への影響波及へと）

ニ  conserving protected areas to recognizing the importance of human intervention （保護區域の保存から人間介入の重要性認識へと）

【解答】

ニ

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (4) 3パラ

(3)  Satoyama has since evolved and is now used in differing contexts.  Among neo-traditional⁴ conservationists, satoyama often broadly refers to traditional rural landscapes and has become for many a symbol of land where humans and nature coexist in a symbiotic⁵ relationship.  For ecologists exploring habitat modification and human use of natural landscapes, the satoyama concept has evolved to include cultivated lands (farmlands), and reservoirs⁶ (including natural wetlands and traditional man-made irrigation ponds called tameike); all elements linked together as part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan.

  注  ⁴neo-traditional  新伝統主義の  ⁵symbiotic  共生の  ⁶reservoirs  貯水池  

 

【設問】

問3  According to paragraph (3), nowadays, among many neo-traditional conservationists, satoyama has become a symbol of land where [     ].

イ  humans and nature share a mutually beneficial relationship

ロ  conservationists explore relationships with ecologists

ハ  ecologists cultivate land and create habitats

ニ  conservationists modify rural landscapes and wetlands

 

問4  According to paragraph (3), [     ] are NOT considered a part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan.

イ  cultivated lands

ロ  natural wetlands

ハ  chemical fertilizers

ニ  man-made irrigation ponds

 

 

3.1  Satoyama has since evolved and is now used in differing contexts.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.1 以來里山（概念）は進化してきてをり、異なる状況で使はれてゐる（/現在では使はれる文脈が變はりつつある）。

 

3.2  Among neo-traditional conservationists, satoyama often broadly refers to traditional rural landscapes and has become for many a symbol of land where humans and nature coexist in a symbiotic relationship.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.2 新傳統主義的（自然環境）保護論者の間では、里山は、昔ながらの田園風景を大まかに指して使はれることがよくあり、多くの人々にとつては、人間と自然とが共生關係で共存する地の象徴となつてゐる。

 

3.3  For ecologists exploring habitat modification and human use of natural landscapes, the satoyama concept has evolved to include cultivated lands (farmlands), and reservoirs (including natural wetlands and traditional man-made irrigation ponds called tameike); all elements linked together as part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.3 生息地の變遷や人間による自然（の相の）利用を探究する生態學者にとつては、里山といふ概念は進化發展して（その結果）、耕作地（農地）、それに貯水池（もとからの濕地や溜池と呼ばれる昔からの灌漑用人工池を含んでゐる）を含むやうになつてきてゐる。（里山では）すべての要素が、傳統的な日本の農地使用システムの一部として、關聯づけられて（/つながつて）ゐるのである。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・不定詞の副詞的用法（結果）： 「進化發展した」結果、どういふ状態になつたかについて不定詞句が説明を補つてゐます。

・セミコロンの後は一種の分詞構文とみました。linked は過去分詞でせう。all elements のあとに being を補つてみるか、あるひは all elements のまへに with を置いて、そのあとに目的語と補語が續くとみる觀方もできやうかと思ひます。（※文法書では「獨立分詞構文」の項に説明や例文がみつかるでせう）

 

 

【設問】

問3  According to paragraph (3), nowadays, among many neo-traditional conservationists, satoyama has become a symbol of land where [     ]. （第３パラグラフによると、今日では新傳統主義的（自然環境）保護論者の間で、里山は～地の象徴になつてゐる）

イ  humans and nature share a mutually beneficial relationship （人間と自然とが相互に有益な關係を分ち合ふ）

ロ  conservationists explore relationships with ecologists （保護論者が生態學者との關はりをさぐる）

ハ  ecologists cultivate land and create habitats （生態學者が土地を開拓(耕作)し、生息地をつくりだす）

ニ  conservationists modify rural landscapes and wetlands （保護論者が田園地帶や濕地の姿を變へる）

【解答】

イ

 

問4  According to paragraph (3), [     ] are NOT considered a part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan. （第３パラグラフによると、～は、日本傳統の農地使用システムの一部であるとは看做されてゐない）

イ  cultivated lands （耕作地）

ロ  natural wetlands （自然濕地）

ハ  chemical fertilizers （化學肥料）

ニ  man-made irrigation ponds （灌漑用の人工池）

【解答】

ハ

・英文讀解のヒント (11) 《分離不定詞》

英文讀解のヒント (11) 《分離不定詞》

1  次の英文を音讀または默讀しながら意味をとらへ、下線部については意味を日本語で言つて、または書いてみませう。（※讀み方がわからない語はあとで辭書で調べておきませう）

   What are the roots of your procrastination?  Because the behaviors described here seem common to most people, you do not need to completely change your habits if you only procrastinate once in a while.  On the other hand, if you feel that your procrastination is a problem, the first step to reducing it is identifying the reasons behind it.  Self-help books and websites give numerous techniques for overcoming procrastination, but it is only by understanding the roots of the problem that you can choose the appropriate method for yourself.

（12 センター試驗 2012 6パラ； 2012年2月10日掲載）

 

2  下線部の解説

2.1  分離不定詞（split infinitive / 分割不定詞とも）： to と動詞の原形との間に副詞(句)が置かれたかたちを言ひます。ここでは副詞 completely が置かれて動詞を修飾してゐます。本ブログではこれまで7囘扱ひました。置かれた副詞は completely の外 better / drastically / further / jointly / successfully / truly でした。

2.2  ここでは not が completely と共に使はれてゐるため、「完全にすつかり～とは限らない」といつたやうに一部分を否定する「部分否定」的な意味合ひが讀み取れます。「完全には變へなくてもいいのだ」、つまり「時たまの先延ばしを改善するため、習慣を多少は變へるのも好いだらうが、すつかり變へるところまではしなくて可いのだ」と述べてゐるわけです。（※ 部分否定については同じセンター試驗の１パラで簡單な解説を記しました。2012年1月23日付拙稿です）

 

3  意味把握チェック

  何が（あなたの）先延ばしの根本原因なのか。ここに述べられる行動は大概の人に共通してゐると思はれるから、時たま先延ばしをするだけであれば、習慣をすつかり變へるには及ばない。他方、もし自分の先延ばしが問題だと感じるなら、先延ばし削減への最初の一歩は、背後にある諸原因を見定めることである。自己啓發の書籍やインターネット上のサイトは、先延ばし克服（のため）の手法をたくさん提供してくれるが、自身のために自ら適切な方法を選べるのは、（自分の先延ばしの）問題の根本原因を理解することによるほかないのである。

 

4  意味把握チェックの下線部を參考にして、元の英文に戻してみませう。

 

※下線部以外の解説については2012年2月10日付のブログ記事をご參照ください。畫面右の Back Numbers で該當の月・年をクリックし、Calendar で該當日をクリックしてご利用ください。

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (3) 2パラ

(2)  The idea of satoyama ― along with the views about nature, lifestyles, cultural values, traditional knowledge and resource management practices it represents ― would have faded into the records of history were it not for the efforts of another forester ecologist, Tsunahide Shidei, who reintroduced this concept in the 1960s.  Shidei’s reintroduction of satoyama was partly a counter reaction to the chemical fertilizer revolution of the time and the impact rapid economic development was having on the social, cultural and natural landscapes of Japan.

 

【設問】

問2    According to paragraph (2), Tsunahide Shidei reintroduced the concept of satoyama to [     ].

イ  promote the use of chemical fertilizer

ロ  promote rapid economic development

ハ  remind Japanese of their traditional ways

ニ  destroy natural landscapes of Japan

 

 

2.1  The idea of satoyama ― along with the views about nature, lifestyles, cultural values, traditional knowledge and resource management practices it represents ― would have faded into the records of history were it not for the efforts of another forester ecologist, Tsunahide Shidei, who reintroduced this concept in the 1960s.

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.1もしもう一人の森林生態學者である Tsunahide Shidei、この人は1960年代にこの概念を再導入したのであるが、彼の努力がなければ、里山といふ概念は―それが表はす自然觀、生活樣式、文化的價値、昔から傳はる知識、自然管理の實踐と共にだが―歴史の記録のなかへと消えてしまつてゐたことであらう。

 

【讀解のポイント－かたちからのアプロウチ】

・倒置の條件節： were it not for ～= if it were not for ～（「もし～がなければ」）。ここは假定法の動詞 were を用ゐて事實と異なる事態を條件として提示してゐます。本來 had it not been for ～/= if it had not been for ～（「もし～がなかつたなら」） となるところなんでせうが、筆者は單なる假定法過去の動詞で濟ませてゐます。因みに、四手井綱英氏は平成21年に亡くなつてゐます。

  歸結節は would have faded で、「～消えて（失はれて）ゐたであらう（に）」といつた意味を傳へます。

（※倒置の條件節については2011年8月10日付の拙稿に解説や例文があります。また2014年4月23日付の記事でも扱つてゐます）

 

[語句]

2.1     along with ～            ～と一緒に/～に加へて

 

2.2  Shidei’s reintroduction of satoyama was partly a counter reaction to the chemical fertilizer revolution of the time and the impact rapid economic development was having on the social, cultural and natural landscapes of Japan.

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.2  の里山概念再導入は、當時の化學肥料革命に對する、また急速な經濟發展が日本の社會、文化、自然の諸樣相に與へてゐる影響に對する反撥行動といふ部分もあつた。

 

[語句]

2.2     have an impact upon/on ～      ～に影響を與へる

 

 

【設問】

問2    According to paragraph (2), Tsunahide Shidei reintroduced the concept of satoyama to [     ]. （第２パラグラフによると、Tsunahide Shidei は里山といふ概念を～ために再導入した。）

イ  promote the use of chemical fertilizer （化學肥料の使用を促進する）

ロ  promote rapid economic development （急速な經濟發展を促進する）

ハ  remind Japanese of their traditional ways （昔から傳はるやり方を日本人に思ひ起こさせる）

ニ  destroy natural landscapes of Japan （日本の自然(の相)を破壞する）

【解答】

ハ

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (2) 1パラ

Harvest Time in Satoyama

(1)  For many Japanese, satoyama represents the ideal of coexistence between humans and nature. It is commonly described as secondary woodlands¹ and grasslands near small villages, and is the scene of rich biological diversity.  The first written reference to satoyama dates back to 1759.  Forester² Hyoemon Terauchi recorded the livelihoods³ of rural mountain woodland communities and used the term satoyama to describe the human managed landscapes surrounding those communities.

注： ¹secondary woodlands  二次林（山火事や伐採などで破壊されたあとに生じる森林）  ²forester  林業者  ³livelihoods  生活の手段

 

【設問】

問1  According to paragraph (1), Hyoemon Terauchi used the term “satoyama” to describe [     ].

イ  small rural villages

ロ  rich biological diversity

ハ  managed lands surrounding small villages

ニ  the livelihoods of mountain woodland communities

 

 

Harvest Time in Satoyama（里山の收穫期）

1.1  For many Japanese, satoyama represents the ideal of coexistence between humans and nature.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.1 多くの日本人には、里山は人（間）と自然との共存（/共生）の理想を表はしてゐる。

 

1.2  It is commonly described as secondary woodlands and grasslands near small villages, and is the scene of rich biological diversity.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.2 里山は、通例、小さな村々に近い二次林や草地と説明され、豐かな生物多樣性が見られる場である。

 

1.3  The first written reference to satoyama dates back to 1759.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.3 最初の里山についての記述（による言及）は1759年に遡る。

 

1.4  Forester Hyoemon Terauchi recorded the livelihoods of rural mountain woodland communities and used the term satoyama to describe the human managed landscapes surrounding those communities.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.4 林業者である Hyoemon Terauchi は、鄙びた山村（/山林地集落）の暮しぶり（/生活の手段）を記録し、人の手の入つた（/人間に管理される）山村周邊地の樣相を表現するのに里山といふことばを用ゐた。

 

[語句]

 1.4  landscape = the aspect of the land characteristic of a particular region

 

 

【設問】

問1  According to paragraph (1), Hyoemon Terauchi used the term “satoyama” to describe [     ]. （第１パラグラフによると、Hyoemon Terauchi は～を表現するために「里山」といふことばを用ゐた）

イ  small rural villages （小さな村落）

ロ  rich biological diversity （豐かな生物多樣性）

ハ  managed lands surrounding small villages （小さい村々の周りの管理地）

ニ  the livelihoods of mountain woodland communities （山林地集落の生活手段）

【解答】

ハ

・46 秋田縣立大學 2014 (1) 全文

　秋田縣立大學で2014年に出題された問題です。月曜日と金曜日に、パラグラフ毎に解説して參ります。

 

次の英文を読み、以下の問い(問1～10)の [     ] に入る最も適切なものを、イ～ニからそれぞれ一つずつ選び、答えなさい。

Harvest Time in Satoyama

(1)  For many Japanese, satoyama represents the ideal of coexistence between humans and nature. It is commonly described as secondary　woodlands¹ and grasslands near small villages, and is the scene of rich biological diversity.  The first written reference to satoyama dates back to 1759.  Forester² Hyoemon Terauchi recorded the livelihoods³ of rural mountain woodland communities and used the term satoyama to describe the human managed landscapes surrounding those communities.

(2)  The idea of satoyama －－ along with the views about nature, lifestyles, cultural values, traditional knowledge and resource management practices it represents －－ would have faded into the records of history were it not for the efforts of another forester ecologist, Tsunahide Shidei, who reintroduced this concept in the 1960s.  Shidei’s reintroduction of satoyama was partly a counter reaction to the chemical fertilizer revolution of the time and the impact rapid economic development was having on the social, cultural and natural landscapes of Japan.

(3)  Satoyama has since evolved and is now used in differing contexts.  Among neo-traditional⁴ conservationists, satoyama often broadly refers to traditional rural landscapes and has become for many a symbol of land where humans and nature coexist in a symbiotic⁵ relationship.  For ecologists exploring habitat modification and human use of natural landscapes, the satoyama concept has evolved to include cultivated lands (farmlands), and reservoirs⁶ (including natural wetlands and traditional man-made irrigation ponds called tameike); all elements linked together as part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan.

(4)  Interest in the satoyama landscape and its recognition as an example of a sustainable system have spread beyond conservation ecology circles to include policy makers and citizens concerned with the socio-cultural⁷ and environmental impacts of contemporary lifestyles.  This growing interest is reflective of the gradual shift in focus of the nature conservation movement.  Where once there was an emphasis specifically on conserving designated protected zones, there is now recognition that human intervention is an important element.

(5)  Landscape transformation often mirrors social and economic changes.  How have satoyama landscapes been altered as Japan has gone from an agrarian⁸ society, sustained by locally managed and produced bioresources, to an industrialized urban society dependant on imported fossil fuels and associated products?  According to leading satoyama landscape ecologists, the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s led to two distinctive patterns of degradation⁹.  Satoyama landscapes disappeared as urban sprawl¹⁰ and large scale development changed the traditional rural landscapes.  On the other hand, in rural areas far from expanding cities, depopulation combined with aging of the residents has resulted in the abandonment of secondary woodland and farmland and the resulting underuse of bioresources.

(6)  Environmental degradation through the lens of satoyama landscapes has also drawn attention to the food and fuel debate in Japan.  In 1950, 45.5% of the labor force was involved in agriculture.  It has since shrunk to 7%, approximately 60% of whom are over 65 years of age, and the agricultural industry now accounts for a mere 1.3% of the GDP¹¹.  In the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations －－ Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate having dropped to 39% －－ land use, resource management and the weak state of food and fuel security are of growing concern.  [524 words]

[出典]  Adapted from an article in Our World 2.0 (January 13, 2009)

http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/harvest-time-in-satoyama

注： ¹secondary woodlands  二次林（山火事や伐採などで破壊されたあとに生じる森林）  ²forester  林業者  ³livelihoods  生活の手段  ⁴neo-traditional  新伝統主義の  ⁵symbiotic  共生の  ⁶reservoirs  貯水池  ⁷socio-cultural  社会文化的な  ⁸agrarian  農業の  ⁹degradation  退廃  ¹⁰urban sprawl  都市スプロール（都市化が徐々に無秩序に広がっていくこと）  ¹¹GDP  国内総生産（1年間に国内で新たに生産された財・サービスの価値の合計）

 

 

問1  According to paragraph (1), Hyoemon Terauchi used the term “satoyama” to describe [     ].

イ  small rural villages

ロ  rich biological diversity

ハ  managed lands surrounding small villages

ニ  the livelihoods of mountain woodland communities

 

問2    According to paragraph (2), Tsunahide Shidei reintroduced the concept of satoyama to [     ].

イ  promote the use of chemical fertilizer

ロ  promote rapid economic development

ハ  remind Japanese of their traditional ways

ニ  destroy natural landscapes of Japan

 

問3  According to paragraph (3), nowadays, among many neo-traditional conservationists, satoyama has become a symbol of land where [     ].

イ  humans and nature share a mutually beneficial relationship

ロ  conservationists explore relationships with ecologists

ハ  ecologists cultivate land and create habitats

ニ  conservationists modify rural landscapes and wetlands

 

問4  According to paragraph (3), [     ] are NOT considered a part of the traditional agricultural land use system of Japan.

イ  cultivated lands

ロ  natural wetlands

ハ  chemical fertilizers

ニ  man-made irrigation ponds

 

問5  According to paragraph (4), the focus of the nature conservation movement has shifted from [     ].

イ  recognizing the importance of human intervention to conserving protected areas

ロ  interest in satoyama landscape to developing contemporary lifestyles

ハ  developing sustainable systems to influencing policy makers and citizens

ニ  conserving protected areas to recognizing the importance of human intervention

 

問6  According to paragraph (5), the fuel and fertilizer revolutions of the 1960s did NOT lead to [     ].

イ  a change in traditional rural landscapes

ロ  expanding cities

ハ  population growth in rural areas far from cities

ニ  urban sprawl and large scale development

 

問7  According to paragraph (5), one of the two patterns of satoyama degradation was the [     ].

イ  increased dependence on imported fossil fuel

ロ  underuse of bioresources

ハ  disappearance of urban sprawl

ニ  aging of urban residents

 

問8  In paragraph (6), the underlined word “It” at the beginning of sentence 3, refers to the [     ].

イ  lens of satoyama landscapes

ロ  food and fuel debate

ハ  most food import-dependant country

ニ  labor force involved in agriculture

 

問9  According to paragraph (6), which of the following is NOT true?  [     ].

イ  Japan is the most food import-dependant country among industrialized nations

ロ  Currently over half the number of farmers are over 65 years of age

ハ  Since 1950 the labor force involved in agriculture has increased from 7% to 45.5%

ニ  Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate dropped to 39%

 

問10  According to paragraph (6), [     ] is NOT of growing concern.

イ  resource management

ロ  food and fuel security

ハ  land use

ニ  the labor force involved in industry