英文讀解自修室

  - in the historical Japanese kana/kanji orthography

・36 立教大學 2013 (8) 7パラ

2013-12-30 | 出題英文讀解

     Importantly, when Kiyokawa and colleagues instructed participants to attend to sequences at either the global or local level, the cross-cultural difference disappeared.  This result shows that Japanese participants were not less capable of learning local sequences.  In fact, when instructed to focus on them, the Japanese participants learned the local patterns slightly better than their English peers.  In this case, culture does not constrain what we’re able to learn, rather it biases what we are prepared to learn ―― and not learn ―― when we’re allowed to experience the world in the way that comes most naturally to us.

 

【設問】

5. In the author’s view, Kiyokawa’s experiment shows that grammar learning mechanisms are

  イ. not essential to language learning.

  ロ. affected by culture.

  ハ. innate.

  ニ. universal.

 

 

7.1  Importantly, when Kiyokawa and colleagues instructed participants to attend to sequences at either the global or local level, the cross-cultural difference disappeared.

 

[意味把握チェック]  7.1 重要なことに、Kiyokawa と共同研究者たちが、全體的か局所的かいづれかの段階に關心を向けるやう協力者たちに指示した時には、異文化間の相違はなくなつた。

 

[語句]

7.1

 

attend to

注意を拂ふ/關心を向ける

 

 

7.2  This result shows that Japanese participants were not less capable of learning local sequences.

 

[意味把握チェック]  7.2 この結果が示すのは、日本人協力者は局所的連續體を學びとる能力が(イギリス人協力者より)劣るわけではなかつた、といふことである。

 

7.3  In fact, when instructed to focus on them, the Japanese participants learned the local patterns slightly better than their English peers.

 

[意味把握チェック]  7.3 實のところ、日本人協力者が局所的パターンに注意を集中するやう指示された時には、その學びとりはイギリス人協力者たちより少しだけ良かつた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・省略: 4.2 と同じかたちです。

・代名詞の先行: themthe local patterns を指しますが、從屬節が先行するときにはこのかたちになることがあります。

・強調: better を斜體にして意味を強調してゐます。

 

[語句]

7.3

 

in fact

實のところ/實際上

 

7.4  In this case, culture does not constrain what we’re able to learn, rather it biases what we are prepared to learn ―― and not learn ―― when we’re allowed to experience the world in the way that comes most naturally to us.

 

[意味把握チェック]  7.4 このケースでは、文化は學びとれる内容を制約するのではなく、むしろ、自分に極く自然と思へるやり方でこの世界を體驗する(がままになつてゐる)時には、文化は、學びとらうとする――そして學びとらうとしない――内容に影響を及ぼす(/偏りをもたらす)のである。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・具體的に「大小の文字と各々が傳へる内容」に即して考へるとわかりやすくなります。文化がそれらの讀み取り能力に對して制限を加へるわけではなく、文化は對象に向き合ふ姿勢やその選擇に影響を及ぼすのだと主張してゐるのでせう。

 

 

【設問】

5. In the author’s view, Kiyokawa’s experiment shows that grammar learning mechanisms are  (筆者の見解では、Kiyokawa の試みは文法習得の仕組(/過程)が~ことを示してゐる)

  イ. not essential to language learning. (言語習得に必須ではない)

  ロ. affected by culture. (文化の影響を受ける)

  ハ. innate. (生得のものである)

  ニ. universal. (普遍的である)

【解答】


・36 立教大學 2013 (7) 6パラ

2013-12-27 | 出題英文讀解

     In a new study, Sachiko Kiyokawa and colleagues tested whether Japanese and English participants have different habits of unconscious learning.  Participants were exposed to an artificial grammar ―― a sequence of letters, which, without informing the subjects, were arranged in repeating patterns, similar to the grammatical patterns found in natural languages.  But these letters were special.  They were constructed to convey “glocal” information (i.e., both global and local).  Big letters were made out of little letters (e.g., a big “N” made up of much smaller “B’s”).  When you focus on the global wholes, you see the big letters, and when you focus locally on the individual parts, you see the little letters.  The big letters were arranged in sequences, and the little letters in different sequences.  Results showed that Japanese participants unconsciously learned the global patterns (in the big letters), whereas English participants learned both the global and local patterns.  This result was confirmed when the sequences were made up of big and little Japanese kana rather than Roman letters, suggesting that the cross-cultural differences could not be explained by participants’ familiarity with one alphabet or another.

 

 

6.1  In a new study, Sachiko Kiyokawa and colleagues tested whether Japanese and English participants have different habits of unconscious learning.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.1 新しい研究で、Sachiko Kiyokawa と共同研究者たちは日本人協力者とイギリス人協力者とで無意識下の習得性向が異なつてゐるかどうかを檢査した。

 

6.2  Participants were exposed to an artificial grammar ―― a sequence of letters, which, without informing the subjects, were arranged in repeating patterns, similar to the grammatical patterns found in natural languages.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.2 協力者たちは人工文法に觸れ(させられ)た――(その人工文法とは)文字の連なつたもの(/一聯の文字)で、(それは)被驗者には知らせることなく、反復パターン(/型/形態)で配列されてをり、自然言語に見出される文法のパターンに似てゐた。

 

[語句]

6.2  the subjects: inform  inform someone of(/about) something のかたちで使ひますから「被驗者」としました。筆者は主として participant を使つてゐるのですが。

 

6.3  But these letters were special.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.3 だがこれらの文字は特殊であつた。

 

6.4  They were constructed to convey “glocal” information (i.e., both global and local).

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.4 それらは「グロウカル」な情報(すなはち全體的情報と局所的情報の兩方)を傳へるやうに作られてゐた。

 

[語句]

6.4 i.e. [àií:/ðæ̀tíz]: ラテン語 id est に由來し「すなはち~である」(that is)。

 

6.5  Big letters were made out of little letters (e.g., a big “N” made up of much smaller “B’s”).

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.5 大きな文字は小さな文字から作られてゐた(例へば、極く小さな「B」で作られてゐる(/から成つてゐる)大きな「N」のやうに)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

made upmade は過去分詞です。うしろから a big “N” を説明してゐます。

 

[語句]

 6.5  e.g. [ì:dʒí:/fərigzǽmpl]: ラテン語 exempli gratia に由來し「たとへば」。

6.5

 

be made up of

~から成り立つてゐる

 

6.6  When you focus on the global wholes, you see the big letters, and when you focus locally on the individual parts, you see the little letters.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.6 包括的な全體に注意を集中すると大きな文字が見え、局所的に個々の部分に注意を集中すると小さい文字が見えるのである。

 

6.7  The big letters were arranged in sequences, and the little letters in different sequences.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.7 多きな文字は次から次へと(連續的に)配列され、小さな文字は異なつた連續を以て配列された。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・省略: the little letters のあとに were arranged が省略されてゐます。

 

6.8  Results showed that Japanese participants unconsciously learned the global patterns (in the big letters), whereas English participants learned both the global and local patterns.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.8 結果が示したのは、日本人協力者たちは無意識裡に(大きな文字での)全體的パターンを學びとり、それに對してイギリス人協力者たちは全體的パターンと局所的パターンの兩方を學びとる、といふことであつた。

 

6.9  This result was confirmed when the sequences were made up of big and little Japanese kana rather than Roman letters, suggesting that the cross-cultural differences could not be explained by participants’ familiarity with one alphabet or another.

 

[意味把握チェック]  6.9異文化間の相違が、どの文字(體系)であれ、協力者たちの文字(體系)への親しみ(の度合)で説明することはできないことを示唆して、文字の連續體が大小のローマ文字より(大小の)日本語假名文字で作られた際に、この檢査結果が正しいことが裏づけられた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

one alphabet or another: oneanother とが呼應してをり、不特定の文字體系を指してゐますから、「ひとつの文字體系であれまた別の文字體系であれ」または「どの文字體系であつても」といつた讓歩的な意味合ひが感じられます。(※ alphabet は「文字體系」の意味で使はれてゐます)

 

[語句]

6.9

 

be made up of

~から成り立つてゐる


・36 立教大學 2013 (6) 5パラ

2013-12-23 | 出題英文讀解

     Further studies challenge this skeptical position.  Japanese and Americans were shown a box with a vertical line inside of it.  They were then shown a second box of a different size, and asked to draw a vertical line inside it that matched the one in the first box.  Half of the time, participants were told to make the line “the same” as the original, meaning the same absolute length (Absolute condition).  The other half of the time, they were told to draw a line that was the “same” length as the first in proportion to the surrounding box (Relative condition).  Results showed that Americans were more accurate in the Absolute task, which required focusing on an individual object and ignoring its surroundings, but Japanese participants performed better on the Relative task, which required perceiving and remembering an object in its context.

 

【設問】

4. The underlined word “skeptical” (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  イ. analytic.      ロ. doubtful.     ハ. relative.     ニ. significant.

 

 

5.1  Further studies challenge this skeptical position.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.1 更なる研究がこの不確かな(/疑問の餘地ある)局面に挑む。

 

5.2  Japanese and Americans were shown a box with a vertical line inside of it.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.2 日本人とアメリカ人とが内側に垂直線が引かれた箱を見せられた。

 

5.3  They were then shown a second box of a different size, and asked to draw a vertical line inside it that matched the one in the first box.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.3 彼らはそれから大きさの異なる二番めの箱を見せられ、最初の箱の内部に引かれた垂直線に匹敵する線を内側に引くやう求められた。

 

5.4  Half of the time, participants were told to make the line “the same” as the original, meaning the same absolute length (Absolute condition).

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.4 (檢査)時間の半分で、協力者たちは線分を最初のものと絶對的に「同じ」長さにする(絶對的條件)やうにと指示された。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・〈tellto-不定詞(…)〉: (「~に…するやうにと言ふ)。ここではこのかたちが受動態になつてゐます。

make OC: 第五文型で「O(the line)をC(“the same” as the original)にする」の意味になります。

・分詞の句(meaning~)が添へられて指示の内容をさらに明確にしてゐます。

“the same”: 引用符に入れたのは、5.4と5.5で same を二樣の意味で使つてゐるからです。「絶對的同じ」と「相對的同じ」を使ひ分けてゐます。定冠詞も引用符の内と外に置くやうにして嚴密に使ひ分けてゐます。

 

[語句]

5.4  absolute condition はここでは作業の性格を説明してゐます。absolute がついてゐますから他と比較考量せずに絶對的に同じ長さにすることが求められてゐることになります。

 

5.5  The other half of the time, they were told to draw a line that was the “same” length as the first in proportion to the surrounding box (Relative condition).

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.5 殘り半分の(檢査)時間で、彼らは線分を圍んでゐる箱の大きさに比例させて最初の線分と「同じ」長さの線を引く(相對的條件)やうにと指示された。

 

[語句]

5.5

 

in proportion to

~に比例して/~と釣合ひがとれて

 

5.6  Results showed that Americans were more accurate in the Absolute task, which required focusing on an individual object and ignoring its surroundings, but Japanese participants performed better on the Relative task, which required perceiving and remembering an object in its context.

 

[意味把握チェック]  5.6 結果が示したのは、絶對的條件の作業では、それは個々の對象物に注意を集中し周りの状況を無視することが求められるのだが、アメリカ人のはうが正確であるが、相對的條件の作業では、それは對象物を置かれた状況のなかで感知し記憶することが求められるのだが、日本人のはうが成績が好い、といふことであつた。

 

【設問】

4. The underlined word “skeptical” (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to  (下線が施された語『懷疑的な』(5パラ)は~に意味が近い)

  イ. analytic. (分析的な)      ロ. doubtful. (疑はしい)     ハ. relative. (相對的な)     ニ. significant. (重要な)

 

【解答】


・36 立教大學 2013 (5) 4パラ

2013-12-20 | 出題英文讀解

     Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists.  For instance, when asked to describe an underwater scene, American participants were likely to start off by mentioning the most prominent fish (there’s a big fish ...).  By contrast, Japanese participants began by describing the surroundings (there’s a pond ...), and they were 100 percent more likely than the Americans to mention relationships between the fish and things in their environment (the big fish swam past the seaweed).  According to some, however, these results could merely show that Americans and Japanese people describe things differently, not that they perceive them differently.

 

【設問】

3. The underlined sentence, “Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists” (paragraph 4), means that these tests

  イ. were conducted by non-experts.

  ロ. emphasized the artistic skills of the participants.

  ハ. were conducted in artificial settings.

  ニ. emphasized participants’ descriptions rather than perceptions.

 

 

4.1  Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists.

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.1 初期の檢査は詩的に過ぎたので多くの科學者たちは納得しなかつた(/を納得させることはできなかつた)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・〈tooto-不定詞(…)〉: 「あまりに~なので…しない/できない」。このかたちにより、協力者の敍述説明に依據する度合がつよく客觀性が十分でない、といつたことを述べてゐるのでせう。

 

4.2  For instance, when asked to describe an underwater scene, American participants were likely to start off by mentioning the most prominent fish (there’s a big fish ...).

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.2 例へば、水面下の光景を敍述説明するやう求められた際に、アメリカ人協力者たちは最も目立つ魚について述べるところから始め(ることがあり)さうであつた(大きな魚がゐる…)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・省略: when / while / though / if などの接續詞の後に〈主語+be動詞〉が省略されてゐると考へられます。(※分詞構文に接續詞がついたものと考へることもできます。進行形にしない動詞がこのかたちをとる時など)

 

[語句]

4.2

 

for instance

例へば

4.2

 

start off

着手する

 

4.3  By contrast, Japanese participants began by describing the surroundings (there’s a pond ...), and they were 100 percent more likely than the Americans to mention relationships between the fish and things in their environment (the big fish swam past the seaweed).

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.3 (アメリカ人協力者たちと)比べて、日本人協力者たちは周圍(の状況)を描寫して始めた(池がある…)、そして彼らはアメリカ人協力者に比べて(一層)確實に魚と周りのものとの關聯を述べ(ることがあり)さうであつた(大きな魚が水草を泳いで通り過ぎた)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

100 percentmore likely の前に置かれ、この比較級を修飾してゐます。「to mention~が間違ひなく一層ありさうだ」と述べてゐることになります。

 

[語句]

4.3

 

by contrast (with ~)

(~と)比べて

 

4.4  According to some, however, these results could merely show that Americans and Japanese people describe things differently, not that they perceive them differently.

 

[意味把握チェック]  4.4 しかしながら、一部の人(/科學者)の言ふところによれば、これらの結果はアメリカ人と日本人とで物事(/事態)の描寫のしかたが異なることを示し得たに過ぎず、物事(/事態)の理解のしかた(/受けとめ方)が異なることは示し得なかつた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・…, not~の部分は these results could not show を簡略なかたちでつけ加へたものです。

 

[語句]

4.4

 

according to

~のいふところによれば / ~に應じて

 

【設問】

3. The underlined sentence, “Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists” (paragraph 4), means that these tests  (下線を施した文(4パラ)はこれらの檢査は~といふことを意味してゐる)

  イ. were conducted by non-experts. (非專門家/專門外の研究者によつて實施された)

  ロ. emphasized the artistic skills of the participants. (協力者たちの藝術的技倆を重視した)

  ハ. were conducted in artificial settings. (人工的な設定環境で實施された)

  ニ. emphasized participants’ descriptions rather than perceptions. (協力者たちの認知内容よりもむしろ敍述説明を重視した)

 

【解答】

ニ  (※洋の東西で思考法が異なることを立證するには客觀性が十分でない、といふ見解を表はす文です)

 


・36 立教大學 2013 (4) 3パラ

2013-12-16 | 出題英文讀解

     The ancient Greeks valued public debate, and individuals who achieved victory in verbal combat were respected.  The Greeks believed that they could recognize truth by applying the rules of logic, and they could understand the world by dividing nature into different categories.  The ancient Chinese, by contrast, valued harmony.  People earned respect by acting respectfully toward their family, community, and country. Clear achievement by individuals was not prized, it was discouraged.  Formal logic played little role in reasoning.  Nature was not analyzed into categories.  Rather, the natural world was viewed as constantly in flow, with no clear separation between the past and the present, the living and the dead, or the animate and the inanimate ―― no clear distinction between “self” and “other.”  Nisbett and colleagues wanted to find out whether these cultural differences ―― valuing independence or interdependence, focusing on distinctions or continuities ―― corresponded to fundamental differences in Easterners’ and Westerners’ perception and cognition.

 

【設問】

2. According to the passage, the ancient Greeks were likely to value all of the following EXCEPT

  イ. winning an argument.

  ロ. enjoying nature without analyzing it.

  ハ. thinking on their own.

  ニ. finding truths by applying the rules of logic.

 

 

3.1  The ancient Greeks valued public debate, and individuals who achieved victory in verbal combat were respected.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.1 古代ギリシア人は公の場での討論を重んじ、ことばの戰ひで勝利をおさめた(個)人は尊敬された。

 

3.2  The Greeks believed that they could recognize truth by applying the rules of logic, and they could understand the world by dividing nature into different categories.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.2 (古代)ギリシア人は、論理原則の適用によつて眞理を知ることができ、自然をさまざまな範疇(/カテゴリー)に分け入れることにより世界がわかると信じてゐた。

 

3.3  The ancient Chinese, by contrast, valued harmony.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.3(古代ギリシア人と)比べて、古代中國人は調和を重んじた。

 

[語句]

3.3

 

by contrast (with ~)

(~と)比べて

 

3.4  People earned respect by acting respectfully toward their family, community, and country.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.4 人々は、家族、社會、國を尊重して振舞ふことにより尊敬を得た。

 

3.5  Clear achievement by individuals was not prized, it was discouraged.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.5 個人による申し分のない業績は讚へられず、妨げられた(/思ひとどまるやう促された)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・節をつなぐ接續詞がありませんが、〈notbut〉(「~ではなく…」)に近い印象を受けます。そんな心持で讀み進めると良いのではないかと思ひます。

 

[語句]

3.5

 

discourage

=to try to prevent

 

3.6  Formal logic played little role in reasoning.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.6 形式論理は思考に於いてわづかな役割しか果さなかつた。

 

3.7  Nature was not analyzed into categories.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.7 自然が範疇に分け入れられることはなかつた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

3.2dividing nature into different categories に類似した表現です。

 

3.8  Rather, the natural world was viewed as constantly in flow, with no clear separation between the past and the present, the living and the dead, or the animate and the inanimate ―― no clear distinction between “self” and “other.”

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.8 それどころか、自然界は動きが絶え間なく續き(/無常で)、過去と現在の間、生者と死者の間、生物と無生物の間にはつきりとした隔て(/隔絶)はないものと――(さらには)「自己」と「他者」の間にはつきりとした區別もないものと看做されてゐた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

with~ は constantly in flow の内容を説明してゐるやうに見えます。ダッシュ以下はさらに説明を追加してゐるやうに見えます。

 

3.9  Nisbett and colleagues wanted to find out whether these cultural differences ―― valuing independence or interdependence, focusing on distinctions or continuities ―― corresponded to fundamental differences in Easterners’ and Westerners’ perception and cognition.

 

[意味把握チェック]  3.9 Nisbett と共同研究者たちはかうした文化の違ひ――(自主)自立を重んじるのか相互依存を重んじるのか、また(區別された)相違點に關心を集中するのか連續體に關心を集中するのかといつた違ひ――が東洋人と西洋人の知覺と認知に於ける根源的な違ひに符合(/と一致)するのかどうかを明らかにしたかった。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

valuing~は these cultural differences を具體的に説明してゐます。

 

[語句]

3.9

 

find out

=to learn or discover (a fact that was hidden)

 

 

【設問】

2. According to the passage, the ancient Greeks were likely to value all of the following EXCEPT  (この一節によると、古代ギリシア人は次の選擇肢のうち~以外のすべてを重んじさうであつた)

  イ. winning an argument. (討論に勝つこと)

  ロ. enjoying nature without analyzing it. (自然を分析することなく愛でること)

  ハ. thinking on their own. (獨力で考へること)

  ニ. finding truths by applying the rules of logic. (論理原則を適用して眞理を見出すこと)

【設問の考へ方と解答】

古代ギリシア人が重んじさうなのはイ、ハ、ニですから、正解はロです。


・36 立教大學 2013 (3) 2パラ

2013-12-13 | 出題英文讀解

     Scientists who dared to wonder how culture shapes thought faced another challenge: How do you define “culture” and “thought”?  How can these abstract notions be quantified and compared?  At the turn of the 21st century, psychologist Richard Nisbett and colleagues constructed a new framework for studying cognition across cultures, summarized in his 2003 book The Geography of Thought.  Whereas Westerners (Europeans and Americans) tend to think “analytically,” Easterners (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) think more “*holistically.”  According to Nisbett, habits of thinking in Westerners and Easterners can be traced back to the way people conceptualized themselves, their society and the natural world in ancient Greece and ancient China.

   *holistically: 総体論的に

 

 

2.1  Scientists who dared to wonder how culture shapes thought faced another challenge: How do you define “culture” and “thought”?  How can these abstract notions be quantified and compared?

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.1 文化がどのやうに思考を形づくるかといふ疑問に挑んだ(/を敢へて問うた)科學者たちはまた別の難題に直面した。つまり、「文化」と「思考」をどう定義するのか?どうすればこれらの抽象概念を定量化し比較することができるのか?

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

(コロン)の後に難題が例示されてゐます。

 

2.2  At the turn of the 21st century, psychologist Richard Nisbett and colleagues constructed a new framework for studying cognition across cultures, summarized in his 2003 book The Geography of Thought.

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.2 21世紀への變目に、心理學者の Richard Nisbett と共同研究者たちは諸文化に於ける(/文化をまたいだ)認知研究のための新しい枠組をつくり、その枠組は彼の2003年の著書『The Geography of Thought(思考の地理學)』に概要が纏められてゐる。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・分詞構文:  summarizedは過去分詞で、summarized~ は分詞の句として直前の文に續けられ、説明をつけ足してゐます。

 

[語句]

The Geography of Thought は日本では『木を見る西洋人 森を見る東洋人』のタイトルで翌2004年にダイヤモンド社から出版されました。

 

2.3  Whereas Westerners (Europeans and Americans) tend to think “analytically,” Easterners (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) think more “holistically.”

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.3 西洋人(歐州人と米人)は「分析的に」思考する傾向があるのに對して、東洋人(中國人、日本人、韓國人/朝鮮人)は(分析的といふよりは)「總體論的に(/包括的に)」思考する(傾向がある)。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

more “holistically”: 同じ性質(holistically)の程度について比較してゐるのではなく、同一のもの(Easterners)についてその異なる特性(analytically / holistically)を比較してゐるやうに見えます。more “holistically” のあとに省略されてゐるのは than “analytically” でせう。

[例文]

2.3

e

These shoes are more pretty than comfortable.

2.3

j

この靴は履き心地が良いといふよりは見映えが良い。

 

[語句]

holistically には「総体論的に」といふ注釋がありますが、部分相互の有機的關係や作用を含めて全體を包括的に觀る見方と考へられます。形容詞として「ホリスティック」といふカタカナ語をよく見かけますが、日本語にぴつたり該當することばがないものでせうか。

 

2.4  According to Nisbett, habits of thinking in Westerners and Easterners can be traced back to the way people conceptualized themselves, their society and the natural world in ancient Greece and ancient China.

 

[意味把握チェック]  2.4 Nisbett の言ふところによれば、西洋人と東洋人の思考の習慣(/習性)は、古代ギリシアや古代中國で人々が自分自身や社會や自然界を概念化したやり方にまで遡る(/跡を辿る)ことができる。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

the way のあとに節(S-V)が置かれてゐます。the way のあとに in whichthat を補つて讀むとわかりやすいかもしれません。(※この the way については20128月1日付の拙稿に解説や例文があります。畫面右の Back Numbers で該當の月・年をクリックし、Calendar で該當日をクリックしてご利用ください)

 

[語句]

2.4

 

according to

~のいふところによれば / ~に應じて


・36 立教大學 2013 (2) 1パラ

2013-12-09 | 出題英文讀解

     Do people with different cultural backgrounds think differently?  The idea that they do, known as cultural relativity, was taboo for decades.  According to some scholars, even raising the question whether different groups of people think differently was racist.  Others argued that cultural relativity was theoretically wrongheaded ―― of course the basic workings of the human mind are universal, aren’t they?

 

【設問】

1. The main purpose of the first paragraph is to show that the idea of cultural relativity

  イ. has been criticized for various reasons.

  ロ. is a basic assumption of modern research.

  ハ. has a long history among scholars.

  ニ. is not well understood.

 

 

1.1  Do people with different cultural backgrounds think differently?

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.1 文化背景がさまざまに異なれば思考もさまざまに異なるのか?(/異なる文化背景をもつ人々は異なつた考へ方をするのか?)

 

1.2  The idea that they do, known as cultural relativity, was taboo for decades.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.2 さうだといふ考へは、「文化相對性」として知られるが、何十年もの間タブー(/禁忌)であつた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・同格表現:  the idea(名詞)と that they do(名詞節)とが竝べ置かれて、that they dothe idea の説明をしてゐます。

they do1.1を肯定文で言ひ換へたものです。

 

1.3  According to some scholars, even raising the question whether different groups of people think differently was racist.

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.3 一部の學者の言ふところによれば、人間集團によつて思考(/考へ方)が異なる(/異なる集團は考へ方も異なるの)かどうかといふ問ひを提起することさへ人種差別的であつた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・同格表現:  the question(名詞)と whether different groups of people think differently(名詞節)とが竝べ置かれて、whether different groups of people think differentlythe question の説明をしてゐます。

racist はここでは形容詞として使はれてゐます。

 

[語句]

1.3

 

according to

~のいふところによれば / ~に應じて

 

1.4  Others argued that cultural relativity was theoretically wrongheaded ―― of course the basic workings of the human mind are universal, aren’t they?

 

[意味把握チェック]  1.4 文化相對性は理論上考へ違ひ(/謬見)である――人間精神の基本的な働きは當然普遍的ではないか?――と論ずる(一部の)學者もゐた。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

・1.3の some scholars と1.4の others とが竝べて使はれてゐます。「~もあるし、他に…もある」といふ風に數量について漠然と述べる表現です。

 

[語句]

1.4

 

of course

もちろん/當然

 

 

【設問】

1. The main purpose of the first paragraph is to show that the idea of cultural relativity (第1パラグラフの主な論點は、文化相對性といふ概念は~と示すことである)

  イ. has been criticized for various reasons. (さまざまな理由で批判されてきてゐる)

  ロ. is a basic assumption of modern research. (現代の研究の基本的前提である)

  ハ. has a long history among scholars. (學者間で長い歴史を有してゐる)

  ニ. is not well understood. (十分に理解されてゐない)

【解答】


・36 立教大學 2013 (1) 全文

2013-12-06 | 出題英文讀解

  立教大學で2013年に出題された問題です。月曜日と金曜日に、パラグラフ毎に解説して參ります。

  次の文を読み、下記の1~9それぞれに続くものとして、本文の内容ともっともよく合致するものを、各イ~ニから1つずつ選べ。

     Do people with different cultural backgrounds think differently?  The idea that they do, known as cultural relativity, was taboo for decades.  According to some scholars, even raising the question whether different groups of people think differently was racist.  Others argued that cultural relativity was theoretically wrongheaded ―― of course the basic workings of the human mind are universal, aren’t they?

     Scientists who dared to wonder how culture shapes thought faced another challenge: How do you define “culture” and “thought”?  How can these abstract notions be quantified and compared?  At the turn of the 21st century, psychologist Richard Nisbett and colleagues constructed a new framework for studying cognition across cultures, summarized in his 2003 book The Geography of Thought.  Whereas Westerners (Europeans and Americans) tend to think “analytically,” Easterners (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) think more “*holistically.”  According to Nisbett, habits of thinking in Westerners and Easterners can be traced back to the way people conceptualized themselves, their society and the natural world in ancient Greece and ancient China.

     The ancient Greeks valued public debate, and individuals who achieved victory in verbal combat were respected.  The Greeks believed that they could recognize truth by applying the rules of logic, and they could understand the world by dividing nature into different categories.  The ancient Chinese, by contrast, valued harmony.  People earned respect by acting respectfully toward their family, community, and country. Clear achievement by individuals was not prized, it was discouraged.  Formal logic played little role in reasoning.  Nature was not analyzed into categories.  Rather, the natural world was viewed as constantly in flow, with no clear separation between the past and the present, the living and the dead, or the animate and the inanimate ―― no clear distinction between “self” and “other.”  Nisbett and colleagues wanted to find out whether these cultural differences ―― valuing independence or interdependence, focusing on distinctions or continuities ―― corresponded to fundamental differences in Easterners’ and Westerners’ perception and cognition.

     Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists.  For instance, when asked to describe an underwater scene, American participants were likely to start off by mentioning the most prominent fish (there’s a big fish ...).  By contrast, Japanese participants began by describing the surroundings (there’s a pond ...), and they were 100 percent more likely than the Americans to mention relationships between the fish and things in their environment (the big fish swam past the seaweed).  According to some, however, these results could merely show that Americans and Japanese people describe things differently, not that they perceive them differently.

     Further studies challenge this skeptical position.  Japanese and Americans were shown a box with a vertical line inside of it.  They were then shown a second box of a different size, and asked to draw a vertical line inside it that matched the one in the first box.  Half of the time, participants were told to make the line “the same” as the original, meaning the same absolute length (Absolute condition).  The other half of the time, they were told to draw a line that was the “same” length as the first in proportion to the surrounding box (Relative condition).  Results showed that Americans were more accurate in the Absolute task, which required focusing on an individual object and ignoring its surroundings, but Japanese participants performed better on the Relative task, which required perceiving and remembering an object in its context.

     In a new study, Sachiko Kiyokawa and colleagues tested whether Japanese and English participants have different habits of unconscious learning.  Participants were exposed to an artificial grammar ―― a sequence of letters, which, without informing the subjects, were arranged in repeating patterns, similar to the grammatical patterns found in natural languages.  But these letters were special.  They were constructed to convey “glocal” information (i.e., both global and local).  Big letters were made out of little letters (e.g., a big “N” made up of much smaller “B’s”).  When you focus on the global wholes, you see the big letters, and when you focus locally on the individual parts, you see the little letters.  The big letters were arranged in sequences, and the little letters in different sequences.  Results showed that Japanese participants unconsciously learned the global patterns (in the big letters), whereas English participants learned both the global and local patterns.  This result was confirmed when the sequences were made up of big and little Japanese kana rather than Roman letters, suggesting that the cross-cultural differences could not be explained by participants’ familiarity with one alphabet or another.

     Importantly, when Kiyokawa and colleagues instructed participants to attend to sequences at either the global or local level, the cross-cultural difference disappeared.  This result shows that Japanese participants were not less capable of learning local sequences.  In fact, when instructed to focus on them, the Japanese participants learned the local patterns slightly better than their English peers.  In this case, culture does not constrain what we’re able to learn, rather it biases what we are prepared to learn ―― and not learn ―― when we’re allowed to experience the world in the way that comes most naturally to us.

     These findings provide some of the first evidence that culture influences unconscious thought processes.  It is striking that the culture-based habit of interpreting our experiences either analytically or holistically can influence how people learn a grammar ―― a task many theorists believe human brains are universally programmed to perform.  Mechanisms of grammar learning may be universal, but it appears that culture-based constraints on attention can determine how these mechanisms are applied.  Beyond the lab, these findings raise questions about education in a multicultural society.  Given the same input, Easterners and Westerners acquired different knowledge ―― as if the two groups had been taught two different lessons.  Increasingly, U.S. classrooms include learners from both holistic and analytic cultures.  Can teachers develop ways to help a culturally diverse group of students learn about both the forest and the trees?

   *holistically: 総体論的に

 

1. The main purpose of the first paragraph is to show that the idea of cultural relativity

  イ. has been criticized for various reasons.

  ロ. is a basic assumption of modern research.

  ハ. has a long history among scholars.

  ニ. is not well understood.

2. According to the passage, the ancient Greeks were likely to value all of the following EXCEPT

  イ. winning an argument.

  ロ. enjoying nature without analyzing it.

  ハ. thinking on their own.

  ニ. finding truths by applying the rules of logic.

3. The underlined sentence, “Early tests seemed too poetic to convince many scientists” (paragraph 4), means that these tests

  イ. were conducted by non-experts.

  ロ. emphasized the artistic skills of the participants.

  ハ. were conducted in artificial settings.

  ニ. emphasized participants’ descriptions rather than perceptions.

4. The underlined word “skeptical” (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  イ. analytic.      ロ. doubtful.     ハ. relative.     ニ. significant.

5. In the author’s view, Kiyokawa’s experiment shows that grammar learning mechanisms are

  イ. not essential to language learning.

  ロ. affected by culture.

  ハ. innate.

  ニ. universal.

6. The underlined word “striking” (paragraph 8) is closest in meaning to

  イ. notable.     ロ.obvious.     ハ. uncertain.     ニ. wonderful.

7. The passage suggests that

  イ. learning processes are basically the same across cultures.

  ロ. culture puts limits on what we’re able to learn.

  ハ. experiments on learning are not very reliable.

  ニ. culture influences the way we learn things.

8. The author suggests that educators in the U.S. need to

  イ. train students’ analytical ability.

  ロ. help students learn different kinds of thinking.

  ハ. incorporate nature into teaching.

  ニ. encourage students to understand international relations.

9. The most appropriate title for this passage is

  イ. Cultural Differences between Japan and the West.

  ロ. The Logic of Ancient Worlds.

  ハ. How Culture Shapes Perception.

  ニ. Current Research on Cognition and Learning.


・35 一橋大學 2013 (18) 17パラ

2013-12-02 | 出題英文讀解

     A successful city is a hard thing to build, and a world-class one even harder.  Incompetent governments have limited and even destroyed the growth of so many cities in the past that people should be neither complacent nor pessimistic about urbanization.

 

【殘る設問】

7  産業の集中が原因で起こる都市の成長とはどのようなものか。具体例を挙げながら、90字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

8  都市間に競争が生じ勝者と敗者が生まれるのはなぜか。100字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

9  人びとが都市の生活に引き寄せられるのはなぜか。100字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

 

 

17.1  A successful city is a hard thing to build, and a world-class one even harder.

 

[意味把握チェック]  17.1 成功した(/繁栄する)都市の構築は難しいことであり、世界的な都市ともなれば尚更難しい。

 

【讀解のポイント-かたちからのアプロウチ】

one(a) city を言ひ換へたものです。one のあとに is を、harder のあとに to build を補つて讀みます。

 

17.2  Incompetent governments have limited and even destroyed the growth of so many cities in the past that people should be neither complacent nor pessimistic about urbanization.

 

[意味把握チェック]  17.2 無能な行政機關は非常に多くの都市の成長を制限してきたし、過去(非常に多くの都市の)成長を台無にしたことさへあるので、人々は都市化について(心配しないで)自己滿足してゐるべきでもないし悲観的である(/悲觀す)べきでもない。

 

 

【設問の殘り】

7  産業の集中が原因で起こる都市の成長とはどのようなものか。具体例を挙げながら、90字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

【設問の考へ方】

  7パラの記述と例が該當すると思はれます。「産業の集中が原因で起こる」といふ限定がついてゐますから、12パラの「人口増に伴ふサービスの充實」や14パラの「施設などの魅力」といつた派生的な事象まで言及しないはうが良いでせう(→設問9)。字數もわづか90字です。

【解答例】

・インド南部のハイデラバードでIT産業の出現に伴ひ人口が増加したやうに、都市に産業集中が起こると、成長産業で働く人々が移民も含めて都市に集まり、人口が急激に増加する。(82字)

 

8  都市間に競争が生じ勝者と敗者が生まれるのはなぜか。100字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

【設問の考へ方】

  都市間の競爭については8パラに記述があります。その要約で一應の解答はできるでせうが、そんな事態に到る過程を簡潔に添へる解答も可能と思はれます。出題者の意圖はわかりかねますが、過程に言及する解答例を示してみます。

  過程に含められさうな事項をさぐると、

・物流コストの低下により、輸送據點としての都市の重要性が薄れる(1、2パラ)

・グローバル化やデヂタル化により、國際市場への依存が増す(4パラ)

・直接的接觸が重要だから産業の集中が起こる(5パラ)

◎産業集中(や人口増加)はどこででも起こり得るから、共存、生き殘りをかけて都市間で競爭するやうになる(8パラ)

  「勝者と敗者が生まれるのはなぜか」については、15、16パラに記述があります。

・グローバル化により企業が競爭にさらされ、收益の差が大きくなる(15パラ)

・都市はその産業の衰退により影響を受けることがある(16パラ)

【解答例】

・輸送據點の重要性低下とグローバル化やデヂタル化の結果、産業集中はどこででも起こり得るから、都市間に共存や生き殘りをかけた競爭が生じ、都市の産業の收益に應じて勝者と敗者が生まれる。(91字)

 

9  人びとが都市の生活に引き寄せられるのはなぜか。100字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で説明しなさい。

【設問の考へ方】

  「人口増によるサービスの充實」が解答の中心になると思はれますが、12パラの要約で解答をつくるのか、13パラの「都市の魅力」の例や14パラの「再開發による餘暇の場としての魅力」の例を含めるのか……見解が分れさうなところです。解答例は兩方つくつてみましたが、出題者の意圖はどうだつたのでせうか……。

【解答例】

・人々は仕事だけでなく遊びでも同類の人々と共に過ごしたがるから、都市は人と會ふ場として活用されてをり、人口が多いだけに、サービス、特に個人の趣向に應じたサービスが充實してゐるから。(91字)

・都市は人口が多いため種々のサービスが充實してゐるから。また筆者が擧げた、都市が安全で愉しい場所と表現された例、再開發により施設や市場ができ、繁華街が再生した例も理由と考へられる。(90字)