食糧完全自給＝不可能

「食量の完全自給」は完全な夢物語だ。絶対に達成できない。（技術的に少なくとも先１００年は）内閣府による世論調査の結果によると、国民のほとんどは食糧の自給を求めているみたいだが、これは国内農業団体によるプロバガンダに世論が流された結果であり、日本の農業の正しい現状についての情報を国民に提供してこなかった農林水産省は責任を取るべきだ。
　少なくとも、化石燃料・原子力燃料の両点で、９９％以上を輸入に頼っている以上、日本人は貿易を制限してまで、農業を守るようなことはするべきではない。今の人口で、海外からの燃料の輸入が止まってしまえば、日本人は石器時代以前の生活レベルで生きて行くことになる。自殺するようなモノで、意味がない。また、牛肉・オレンジの例で分かる通り、貿易が自由化されれば、自給率は下がる。（日本人の大多数が食糧の自給を望んでいると、本当に信じるのならば、今すぐ農産物の輸入を全て自由化するべきだ。きっと食糧輸入は増えないだろう。しかも、日本製の工業製品の自由輸出協定を拡大させることができる。これによる貿易・黒字の拡大が、日本に低いエネルギー自給率を支えられる）
　とりあえず、日本が戦略無しに食糧自給率を維持できる、食糧自給を諦める、いずれにしても、日本には政府機関としての「農林水産省」は必要なくなってきている。今直ぐにでも、廃止・民営化されるべきだ。
　また、日本の発展した農業技術はもっと海外に移転されるべきだ。競争力・自給率の維持を目的に国内に止め於かれるべきではない。少なくとも世界での食糧不足を減少させることができるはずだ。日本人も海外産の安い食糧を手にできる。「適地適作」世界で最も適した場所で最も適した食物を生産することができれば、気候変動が問題になっている今、環境への負担も減らせる。
　ここでもう一度だけ繰り返させてもらう。「エネルギーの自給率」が１％を切っている日本で、国際情勢の不安定化を理由に「食糧自給率を上げたい」と思っているのは大きな欺瞞だ。日本人が本当に今の「国際情勢」に不安を持っているのならば、すぐにでも「農林水産省」を廃止して、その予算を「外務省」・「経済産業省」もしくは何か「新技術の開発」に回すべきだ。最近、外務省の評判が悪いらしいが、どうせどこも大した仕事はしていない。

ecotourism investment 5

6.0 Conclusions: Two ecotourism destinations

6.1 Ecotourism in Otago, New Zealand: local people and democratic city council support socio-cultural sustainability for the tourism industry. Those also benefit ecotourism. If they can deal with the growth of population well, there will not be any political problems in the future either. Moreover, A local ecotourism businesses have advantages that they can cooperate each other for sustainability of the destination. Locally operated ecotourism coordinators increase economical sustainability and some types of independent qualification systems ensure environmental sustainability of the ecotourism destination. On the other hand, flexibility of currency trading creates a risk of investing in New Zealand. Strong NZ$ will reduce a number of tourists in the country and have negative effects on whole tourism destinations.

6.2 Ecotourism in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A social division cased by the apartheid era still remains there. Many local people did not have educations, and they do not have advanced skills and works. The lack of educations increases crime rates and epidemics infection rates at the destination, and keeps society unsustainable. This lack of educations also occurs difficulties of participating ecotourism industries for local people. Then, ecotourism industries have to face unexpected conflicts to the local community. Particularly transformations of the government and laws of the property right after the apartheid era make actual ownerships of lands unclear. This is interrupting conservation works at private owned areas. Because of a separation between people and poor understanding of each other, ecotourism has to manage sustainability without support from the local community there.


7.0 Recommendations
Ecotourism in Otago, New Zealand is socio-culturally, economically and environmentally more sustainable, compared to ecotourism in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, through this report. However, Fuku managing consultant recommends investing in KwaZulu-Natal.
As ecotourism destination, Otago is self-completed. They have the effective city council to satisfy the one industry concept of tourism, many locally managed attractions that focus on sustainability, and independent assessors to ensure quality of the tourism. They tend to limit number of tourists for minimizing impacts and sustainability, so people do not expect a further boom of the tourism. It is a developed tourism destination and investors cannot fund there without tourism expansion and destruction of the environment.
On the other hand, KwaZulu-Natal people cannot manage tourism alone, and they need supports from outside. Constructions of infrastructures for tourism industry including job training centers or schools will improve a quality of tourism, sustainability and standard of living. Those also provide jobs for non-skilled workers and a chance to improve working skills. This development will damage environment but people can sustain their lives in a long term. It is better than that people stay in poverty and keep damaging environment just to survive. Investments for ecotourism business in KwaZulu-Natal will improve local situation dramatically.

ecotourism investment 4

5.3 Environmental Sustainability

5.3.1 In Otago, New Zealand, people have certifications and concessions systems. For instance, people need concessions of the Department of Conservation (DOC) for uses of water and land, every constructions and commercial activities that may affect environment. (DOC, 2006). Inbound Tour Operators Council of New Zealand assesses qualities of tourism industries such as accommodations, transportations and other activities, and provides some kinds of Qualmarks depending on their classes of tourism operations. Green Globe 21 is an international certification system for tourism and destinations. It requires minimizing impacts of the industries. Monarch Wildlife Cruises has a marine mammal viewing permit of DOC for cruise tours, Qualmark endorsed and membership of Green Globe 21. Catlins Wildlife Trackers Ecotours and Walks has DOC concessionaire and marine mammal viewing permit and professional qualifications. Nature Guides Otago has DOC concessionaire, regional council consent and professional qualifications. In addition, Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony has regional council consent and Qualmark endorsed. (Ecotour New Zealand, 2006). Independent organizations are assessing tourism businesses for qualifications that encourage tourism operators to improve their qualities, and these qualifications benefit tourism destinations, sustaining the environment.

5.3.2 In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Natal Parks Board is one of official conservation agencies. They maintain 28 percent of coastline as maritime reserves. They have chosen ecotourism as a strategy for sustainable development and conservation, and they established a reconstruction and development programme, and focused on environmental education programme. However, they mainly relied on funding by the government, and their first priority is economical development. They employed over three thousands staff and manage campsites where more than ten thousands people can stay over in year 2000. On public protected areas, the government owns majority part of the areas, and it is easy to manage environment. Nevertheless, ownerships of the lands, surrounding the public protected areas, are not clear and no one can form a buffer zone. Moreover, ecotourism does not benefit local community well, so local people are not interested in conservation activities there. People need some resolutions to maintain environmental sustainability.

ecotourism investment 3

5.2 Economical Sustainability

5.2.1 In New Zealand, tourism businesses are mainly managed by domestic operators, so the multiplier is more than two. They tend to stay and spend money locally. The tourism industry benefits local community and sustain the destination financially.
On the other hand, international tourists to New Zealand have to pay higher costs than before. According to the National Bank of New Zealand (2006), NZ$ 1 = US$ 0.67 on November 5th, 2006. The exchange rate was about NZ$ 1 = US$ 0.39 at October 2000. These days, travels to New Zealand require almost twice higher budgets for international travelers than in year 2000. It will cause a decrease of the number of international tourists to New Zealand including ecotourists. In addition, this strong NZ$ encourages New Zealand residents to travel overseas, and reduce whole numbers of tourists in New Zealand. Local ecotourism destinations face a difficult competition against the destination in Fiji, Brazil or Kenya. Also, this strong NZ$ increase a risk of losses through a currency trading for foreign investors. These are some negative aspects of economical sustainability.

5.2.2 In the case of South Africa, because charitable donations improve standard of living for the communities, there is no necessity for local people to conserve a nature or participate in ecotourism. That means there is no clear evidence whether the ecotourism is economically sustainable or not and whether the ecotourism sustain local economy or not. Then, because many local people did not have chances of educations, ecotourism operators easily face problems of employing skilled workers locally. They have to invite skilled workers from outside or take time to train people locally.
Furthermore, South African government does not have enough foreign reserves. They have more than US$ 7 billion international trade deficits, and a value of S.A. Rand has dropped about ten percent since last year. There are also risks of foreign currency trading. It is not easy to sustain their economical development.

ecotourism investment 2

5.1 Socio-Cultural Sustainability

5.1.1 In Otago, New Zealand, a democratic city council maintaining socio-cultural sustainability. The city has a peaceful history of more than 150 years, and about 140 thousand people are living there. The city council also supports local tourism industry, following the one industry concept. Their websites provide information of local destinations to the world, and i-SITE Dunedin Visitor Centre offers their visitors and residents convenient information and booking systems domestically. Temporally, Otago region does not have negative socio-cultural impacts on tourism. However, population is going to keep growing there, it might cause some problems, such as pollutions and nature destructions with increase of logging in the future.

5.1.2 In KwaZulu-Natal region, more than half of the rural people are living under the poverty line, many people have been infected AIDS. The HIV/AIDS infection rates is almost the highest in South Africa. Through the apartheid era, many local people did not have educations, and it causes the poverty, high clime rates and social un-sustainability. Also, the lack of educations disturb them participating tourism industry at management levels. They only have skills to work as housekeepers and so on. Moreover, the apartheid era removed many local communities, and structured suitable laws for white settlement. Then new acts to protect removed people make a property right of owners unclear. Recently, a committee of KwaZulu-Natal tourism authority resolved this problem deciding who owned where, but they tend to look at economical revenue of tourism rather than socio-cultural sustainability. Some problems of property right are still left. In South Africa, people have not solved serious social and political problems yet.

ecotourism investment 1

4.1 Ecotourism in Otago, New Zealand.
Otago region is southeast part of the South Island, New Zealand. There are unique nature, such as Royal Albatross, yellow-eyed penguins, water and wading birds, variety of seals, coastlines and volcano. Ecotourism operators organize nature-based tourism and the Department of Conservation is assessing environmental sustainability. For example, Monarch Wildlife Cruises provide nature-observing cruises. Passengers are able to learn undisturbed nature along coastline with minimum impacts. Catlins Wildlife Trackers Ecotours and Walks offers two to four days walking ecotours to up to eight people once. Participants stay a lodge with guides and experience local unique nature in depth. Nature Guides Otago is organizing a day tours with experiences guides. Participants have chances to see variety of unique flora and fauna. Omaru Blue Penguin Colony operates tours to observe blue penguins keeping distance. People can look at a nature of blue penguins without damaging those habitats.

4.2 Ecotourism in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
KwaZulu-Natal region is east coast of South Africa. Official conservation agencies maintain a huge protected area, where is a habitat of elephants, rhinos, buffaloes, leopards and lions, and they also has wetlands and other ecosystems, where special biodiversities still remain. Especially, the St Lucia wetland Park, which is represented by a large and beautiful lake system and sub-tropical coastline, contains mountains, grasslands, forests, mangroves, dunes, beaches and coral reef. People successfully reintroduced some endangered species, such as elephants, hippos, crocodiles, flamingos and pelicans. Numbers of rhino, giraffe and buffalos are growing there. Some parts are the oldest national reserve in Africa. The Drakensberg Mountains attracts walkers and climbers. They have typical mass tourism destination along a coastline. KwaZulu-Natal has been a traditional domestic tourism destination, and almost six million international travelers visited there in year1999.

ecotourism definition 3

Conclusion
In tourism, people consume image of destinations and attractions, so ecotourism also bases on image by ecotourists. In culture ecotourism, differences of a culture against the western style play an important role, in nature ecotourism, lack of artificial products appeals kindness for green environment. Mass ecotourism involves strong relation between sustainable tourist city and a protected area, where is separated by buffer zones. Disproportion between tourism marketing image and practical attraction affects tourists satisfaction, which connect to potential tourism development and sustainability.
In a term of ecotourism, it requires educational components to minimize the impact or maximize the benefit. At least, investment to replace environment cost more than to educate people and prevent destruction in advance. For example, when people organise a guided tours following education course would help conservation work well. Even it would cost them to print out many handout, it is still less than cleaning up trash, which tourists throw away from walkway. Otherwise, if visitors studied environment there it is much valuable the tour is. This is almost same as the preview textbook before a class. Furthermore, for ecotourism organisers, studying comprehension of ‘real’ ecotourism would support the tourism development. If they have special knowledge about the environment and business management well, they can sustain their ecotourism business well. Black and Ham (2005, p.193) talk about an importance of professional certification for tour guides. It encourages guides to study for deeper comprehension of local environment, and learn teaching skills for ecotourists. The certification will increase quality of ecotours. Moreover, “It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to a sharper understanding of professional certification of tour guides and that the proposed general model will aid future programme developers and managers in developing successful and effective tour guide certification programmes” (Black & Ham, 2005, P. 193). Certification of professional tour guides will motivate operators to improve quality of their average ecotours, and further development.

ecotourism definition 2

Nature tourism as ecotourism
Nature ecotourism need to satisfy tourists desire with minimizing impact on the environment. However, even in minimizing impact in passive ecotourism, the impacts cannot be zero. In a term of active ecotourism, keeping the balance between attractions and environment becomes more important. Awaritefe (2004, p. 250) found “The result showing high importance attached to natural attractions was expected, while the low importance attached to safety/security and service related components was perplexing” though a research in Nigeria. In the case of ecotourism this ‘natural attraction’ should be an educational component or conservation works, for ecotourists. He also mentioned importance of uniqueness of nature based tourism compare to a quality of the constructed or man-made environment, which is more developed, planned and managed in Western environments. Furthermore, constructed environments such as infrastructure/ facilities/ amenities tend to be considered as disruptions, which reduces the quality of the natural tropical rainforest environment (Awaritefe, 2004, p. 251). This characteristic of nature tourism is very similar to ideal ecotourits, if reduction of artificial object decreases environmental impacts. Appreciation to the environment is a very important principle in operating ecotourism compared to nature tourism.
Their expectations of visually un-facilitated environment do not mean they tend to expect less service quality. If people require the same quality of service, a tourism industry needs to provide them with hided infrastructures. It does not minimize the impact so it cannot be ecotourism, or the tourism might cost more for local environment behind great wild view. To transform nature tourism to ecotourism, the destination needs to have educational components that explain environmental impact of each facility in their tourism strategy or advertisement. High expectation requires high quality of service to be satisfied. So, educational components are essential to control tourists’ expectations. Therefore, a nature tourist would satisfy less service context of a tour, and they could be an ecotourist.
However, it is not easy to manage an educational system and create an image of a destination for a tourism industry. Co-operation of marketing and conservation strategy would support it to protect the environment and attract ecotourists.
A logo of ‘ecolodge’ gives ecotourists standard of the accommodations, which is environmentally friendly and provide minimum services compared to luxury hotels. The logo attracts people who do not expect high quality of services in a global market. In addition, these people prefer supporting local community and environment that an ecolodge offers them. On the other hand, Osland and Mackoy mentioned (2004, p. 119), “In our sample, 80% of the Mexican ecolodges expressed community-oriented performance goals, whereas only 45% of the Costa Rican lodges mentioned community goals. We offer two possible explanations for these different results. First, we found that most of the ecolodges in Mexico are owned by Mexicans, while most of the ecolodges in our sample in Costa Rica are owned by foreigners.” The ecolodge’s relationship with local society affects their performance. In ecotourism, lodge owners should interact more with local communities to improve their quality of the logo. Therefore, they can develop economical benefit for local people and the people would support them to sustain the environment, where is foundation of their lodges.

Mass tourism as ecotourism
Mass tourism brings fresh money that people can pool it for conservation. It depends on a structure of a tourism industry, but local people receive more benefit than nothing. As long as the impact of tourism is less than the carrying capacity and tourists can learn about ecology, it would be ecotourism. It is impossible to organise a mass ecotour in undisturbed areas, but it is possible at carrying capacity hardening area. Weaver (2001, p. 87) explained about green space in urban area, where can operate mass ecotourism. Urban area is the best place for ecotourism when it is focusing on educational components of itself. However, the example is Canadian city of Waterloo, where about 90 thousand people were living, and the city has 85% of environment for wild flora and fauna in 2001. The percentage is almost same as the ‘95-5’ rule (Weaver, 2001, p. 81). That means in every ecotourism requires special area between human and nature space. Ecotourists want buffer zones probably for wildlife.
Goeldner and Ritchie (2003, p. 306) describe, “a major trend is the growth of the over-65 senior citizen market and the semi-senior citizen market”, and elder people tend to be soft-ecotourists such as birdwatchers rather than hard-ecotourists. They prefer observing nature to close interaction. They would create new market of ecotourism, and the importance of soft-ecotourism will increase.
“Although some authors (Mastny, 2001; Pleumarom, 2001) have correctly used 'mass ecotourism' as a derogatory label to describe the 'green' marketing efforts of transnational tourism corporations”(as cited in Kontogeorgopoulos, 2004, p.105), local community and a group of small tourism operators can organise a mass ecotourism, which must have educational components and economical benefit that support conservation work at a protected area. Kontogeorgopoulos, (2004, p.106) also stated, “Ecotourism in Phuket has developed as a by-product of conventional tourism, and as such, remains fundamentally linked to and dependent on the continued and future health of national and regional tourism development.”
The most valuable advantage of mass ecotourism is ‘minimizing impact’. Because it attracts tourists to 5% of natural area, it can protect 95% of natural environment. Moreover it can organise effective educational course for tourists, and the knowledge would help interest people in environment around them. It creates huge revenue for local community and conservation work as well.

ecoourism definition 1

Introduction
The ecotourism is one of alternative tourisms, and often appears in culture and nature based tourism. It includes sustainability of environment, socio-cultural and economic development and educational components. A Main purpose of ecotourism is protecting environment that often threatened by unsustainable development or cultural distinction. Unsustainable development causes poverty, and triggers distractions of environment that people cause to survive. Cultural distinction converts a balance between local people and an environment and affects the sustainability of the society.
Ecotourism can be applied to mass tourism for green consumers as long as it satisfies the ecotourism principles. Bigger number of travelers means higher revenue for conservation as well, so mass ecotourism would support development of ecotourism financially. However, often tourism customers decide what ecotourism is, and the industry side does not have strong initiatives for ecotourists to organise ‘right’ ecotourism.
Judd and Fainstein (1999, p. 5) mentioned “The tastes and desires of tourists are fickle; just like car buyers, they will yearn for next year’s model even before it appears”. If ecotourism operators follow visitors’ expectations without specific strategies for conservation, they are likely to step out from ecotourism principles: sustainability of development. According to Honey (1999, p. 15-17), the World Bank focused on tourism to reduce debt crisis of developing countries, and “many Third World countries turned to ecotourism as a foreign exchange earner that was potentially less destructive” (Honey, 1999, p.17).

Culture tourism as ecotourism
People can organize culture tourism in New York to observe ‘American capitalism culture’. Even many people visit, it would not harm New York environment but benefit local economics, so it is sustainable and beneficial for local people. However, tourism in New York cannot provide economical sustainability for local society, because of its size. There are many financial industries, which create much of economical revenue, so tourism industry does not play main role. That is a reason people are not interested in ecotour in New York. Cater (2006, p.24) stated, “Western-envisaged ecotourism needs to be viewed against the backdrop of the global political economy”. So, it is difficult to create an image of ecotourism in New York. As long as images of tours attract travelers to a destination, ecotourism cannot be organised in a culture, which is supported by capitalism or globalisation.
On the other hand, if many people from developed countries visit cultural heritage, it damages local society and culture. Zogrofos & Kenrick (2005, p.205) wrote, “Local people are able to manipulate the image they present to visitors to satisfy tourist images (Cohen 1988), in a process that has been termed reconstructing ethnicity' (MacCannell 1984). This process is not always seen as negative given its potential to reinforce ethnic identity (Smith 1982), help local people maintain their identity (Mansperger 1995) or revive values and identities (Van den Berghe 1994) in such a way that tourism can potentially become an empowering vehicle of self-representation (Stronza 2001)”. Weather as negative or positive, there is a crash and change when two cultures face. ‘Indigenousness’ people have to reconstruct their own culture comparing western custom.
Almost all of traditional cultures were developed by local people, who chosen their preference, however, they can never add up western lifestyle as the tradition. Zogrofos & Kenrick (2005, p. 206) also stated, “Accounting for the fact that 'indigenousness' notions are probably negotiated rather than imposed through the ecotourism encounter”, but the ‘indigenousness’ still has to be different from western style. Moreover as they also stated later, local people have to be identified as indigenous by advanced world “to maintain control over asserting their own notions of indigenous identity and more generally, asserting control over the development of ecotourism and the use of local resources” (Zogrofos & Kenrick, 2005, p. 206).
A principle of Ecotourism contains “3. Promotes ethical behaviour toward local communities and environment, 7. Supports local community empowerment through genuine and full participation” (IPC definition). So, ecotourism may support local people to organise and conserve their traditional culture. Then it would help them avoid stereotypes by other cultures, although, the tradition has to be considered as ‘indigenousness’ by advanced world, where ecotourists come from.

North Kapiti

Introduction.
Kapiti Island is “10 km long and about 2 km wide”(DOC, 1997), and it has been nature reserve since 1897. However, the north end of the island was used as a resort and limited farming between 1920-1961. In 1994, “rats were discovered eating birds eggs” (Katz, 2001, p5), and in 1995, a program “to eradicate rat was initiated” (Katz, 2001, p5). Then, in 1998, “Nick Smith [Minister of Conservation] officially declared Kapiti island rat free” (Katz, 2001, p5). The DOC is still strict on observing rat and other pests’ reintroduction, because “it is the only large island sanctuary for birds between Hauraki Gulf in the north and New Zealand’s southern outlying island” (DOC, 1997). On private owned land at the north part of the island, landowners cooperate with Department of Conservation and manage ecotourism, and attract tourists from all over the world.

Discussion.
Concession cost and effect: To protect natural reserve, concessions play an important role. However, it burdens tour organisers too much and could eliminate local operators out of ecotourism.
According to the Department of Conservation (2006), the concession of low impact process costs applicants at least $1190 + GST each, and high impact process takes 6-12 months. Then, J. Barrett stated ecotourism has low profitability (personal communication, September 6, 2006). It is not easy to afford concession cost for local operators, so the cost would lead local businesses to be taken over by corporations, which can withstand high investment. Moreover, multinational corporations which attract up-market visitors can construct their “own wastes management facility to minimize the risk of pollution”(Ioannides & Holcomb, 2003, p. 42).
On the other hand, Department of Conservation relies on taxation, which is coming from domestic money flow. So, it is not clear whether even the Department could keep their neutrality of concessions or not.

Native flora and fauna: J. Barrett said that after the end of the farming, the number of birds has increased and those birds brought seeds of plants to Kapiti Island. (personal communication, September 6, 2006). It appears to have positive feedback on the environment. However, this process has been in development for less than 20 years. It is difficult to see an alternative result of natural introductions of flora and fauna. At least, the main North Island of New Zealand is full of introduced plant species, which could be introduced to Kapiti by immigrating birds. The balance between native and introduced flora is unclear. Moreover, both of the amounts of introduced flora and fauna are still less than carrying capacity of Kapiti Island, and increasing in number. When the numbers reach the capacity, someone needs to decide whether they would move toward active conservation or keep observing.

Financial aspect: According to J. Barrett, the ecotourism industry is less profitable than other industries (personal communication, September 6, 2006), so they have difficulty funding primary investment. However, according to Osland, & Mackoy, “by self-assessment, the ecolodges were performing well on almost all of the other types of performance goals that managers and owners reported” (2004, p. 122). So, once financial organisations notice the ecolodge performances they will support ecotourism financially.

Transportation problems: As J. Barrett told us about birdwatchers from Europe (personal communication, September 6, 2006), it is beneficial that international ecotourists experience New Zealand undisturbed environment. However, Byrnes & Warnken mentioned, “Transport to and between destinations has been identified as tourism’s major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions” (2006, p.255), and the global warming has long term impacts as the climate change. Local conservation activities in particular area cannot withstand abrupt global change. People need to cooperate to work for that.

Recommendations: to better meet IPC’s definition of ecotourism.
Regulation of a direct financial benefit for conservation: The ecotour on Kapiti Island satisfies other 9 principles of IPC definition. It is based on the natural environment and community, benefit local society, and the guide talk and handout had enough educational components. Along a track, I saw native birds and plants, landform that tell us the local climate, and some traps to pests. Then, the ecotour follows the concession by Department of Conservation.
However, it was not clear that precisely how much financing they did for conservation every year. Especially, a private company does not have specific profits and a tour guiding is seasonal work, so they tend to have flexible expenditure for conservation. Therefore, ecotourism operators should store exact amount of funds every month for sustainable maintenance of natural reserve.

Conclusion.
1. Too close interaction between residents and bird: Because of long Ngati Toa tribe resident history, relationship between native birds and people are very close. However, native birds should not depend on humans, such as tourists. Ecotourists should keep their distance from native flora and fauna, and ecotourism operators should separate natural environment from ecotourists impact, such as walking track, accommodation and transportation.

2. Information for pest control: On the way to the island the guide distributed a handout about pest control, but I did not feel bothered reading it. The handout was recycled one. Ecotourism is able to protect nature, informing tourists about pest control, and it is much cheaper than pesticide after reintroduction. That handout is very useful for every ecotourists.

3. Domestic tourists rather than international. As J. Barrett mentioned in his speech, talking to local people and students about precious nature is an ecotour as well (personal communication, September 6, 2006). Furthermore, the number of domestic tourists is bigger than international travelers, and local people have more impact on the local environment. Ecotourism businesses should focus on education for local residents to conserve the environment together. Then, “marketing to repeat visitors is more economical than continually trying to attract new consumers” (Ioannides & Holcomb, 2003, p.44), and international tourists to New Zealand have geographical difficulties coming back again. So, focusing on domestic tourists has economical benefits as well.

carbon credit trading 4

Green tickets
For people who want to do something for climate change, www.climatecare.org and www.carbonneutral.com provide green ticket of airplane. This is the same as the normal tickets, but add some prices on that are used for green project around the world. “For example, offsetting a flight from London to Paris would cost you 37p.” (Goff, 2006). “[British petroleum] offers more expensive offset petrol in Australia” (The Economists, 2006), while they provide normal price petrol. Environmentally friendly consumers do not mind that a company put the cost of offsetting on the commodity prices.

Forestation
An acre of planted forests takes 400 to 450 tonnes of carbon dioxide over the 100 years. (Knight-Ridder, 2004). As the forest gets bigger naturally, people are able to sell more carbon credits. That means slower increase of income at the beginning and rapid increase later. However, calculating the exact amount is difficult. Accidental, forest fire and infestations could release the carbon to air. People need enough amounts of funds to maintain primary forests and sustain the environment.

Fund
Extreme weathers, such as huge hurricanes, heavy snows, and recorded heat, lead the funding easier for environment conservation. HSBC (The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited) is focusing on supporting a business, which is environmentally sustainable. Moreover, Swiss Re and Munich Re, an insurance company starts investing more for the climate change. Energy efficient technologies save usage of oils, increase profits and it develops the corporation, but it also contributes to decline of climate change. Insurance companies have to prepare for compensation, which is caused by natural disasters and the climate change.
Financial companies start looking at environmentally sustainability of businesses, to make sure that those businesses would not get bankrupted with disasters instigated by the climate change.

Indulgences sins
People say that offsetting of carbon emission is similar to past indulgences sins, which was printed by the Catholic Church, people purchase for forgiveness. (The Economist, 2006). In India, where people do not have emission cap by Kyoto protocol, ‘carbon credits’ is used to call subsidies for plantation owners. Their plantations also have trees that capture green house gases, but those are often planted after they deforested native tree. When people purchased this kind of carbon credit they can feel free from pollution problems, and they could support local farmers in developing countries, but it does not work for the climate change, primary reason of the credit trading. (The times of India, 2005).
On the other hand, the permit trading is able to effective for the global warming. The negative reputation is also because people cannot view air pollutions and effect of permit trading. The emission must be cut, but people wonder whether the trading works or not. That also means lack of trust on the permit trading by people. In any industries, makers cannot sell their products without trust by customers. It is the same as on permit trading. The market needs work to improve their images, like car industries advertise themselves. Green tickets also require trust by consumers. In the case of car industries, people can see tangible cars, but it is not easy to show consumers result of the permits trading for operators. Moreover, people are not going to buy a car if they do not know the quality of it. Operators of credits traders also need to market themselves to prove their activity qualities to consumers. (Mackintosh, 2006)

Kyoto protocol
This agreement is to reduce overall emission of green house gases to stop global warming, however, it exclude newly industrializes countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Those are becoming major causes of air pollutions, and their economic growth suffers developed countries. It discourage companies in developed countries to invest for improve their efficiencies. International society does not have any further proposal that encourage developing countries not to increase their pollutions. If people had one it would cost developing countries a lot to prepare the same quality of facilities that advanced countries are using. Also, it offers more revenues for companies, which have advanced technologies for production.

Conclusion
The carbon emission trading has variety types. The most formal one is European climate exchange, operated by European Commissions. There is not easy to perticipate for individual people. Chicago climate exchange is organized by volunteers and have more flexibility. There is an enough space for companies to participate in the trading and gain profits. In addition, any people can arrange their own carbon credit as one of green marketing. Green tickets are one of them. Managers cooperate with airplane companies to sell a ticket for higher price, which used for green activities and offset their emission. In the case, people need special marketing strategy for trust of the credits. When people can create a ‘green’ image of carbon credit trading, the business will be economically successful.

carbon credit trading 3

Introduction
I would like to discuss about carbon credit trading. Often people focus on the trading as environmental point, but in this report I will look at an economical part, whether people organize profitable business model or not. This report will base on primary idea of emission trading before 2000, and compare it to recent new article, which talks about the trading as a practical method.
In spite of fundamental issues, the carbon emission trading has been carried out by European Unions and Chicago climate exchange. Then, it is one of the first growing and controversial market in the world. (The Economist, 2006).

Permits trading market
European climate exchange was established to follow the Kyoto protocol reductions limit. It is a cap trading. European Union set the maximum pollution limit on some industries such as power station and cement producers, and those participants trade reminders between real pollution and the permits. If they pollute less than their permits they have extra gain, but if they pollute more than the permits they have to buy the credit at the market, or European Union fine them. This fine system drives companies to the market and keeps it working. (LatinFinance, 2005). Because many companies try to buy carbon credits not to pay fine, they keep their trade price higher. Then, they will start reducing the overall carbon emission by tightening the permits. (Vencat, 2006). “The level of carbon credit allocated to each country will also be cut further after 2008” (Goff, 2006), to meet the initial emission target in 1991.
However, the European exchange is to reduce domestic emissions so they do not allow the offsetting by planting trees. (The Economist, 2006). Because the natural environment in Europe has developed well, they do not have incentives to plant extra trees. National parks are already well-protected area and central authority has spare fund to conserve nature without private sectors. Additionally, if they allow people to credit carbon dioxide exhausted by trees, it would cause an oversupply of the credit. That is because there are huge areas of forests on the earth. Then the oversupply of the credit triggers fall of credit price at the market that motivate polluters. When they do not have to pay high price, they tend to rely on offsetting by the credit rather than actually reducing their emissions. Furthermore, the credit by plans vacuums money from other industries that they should invest to new facilities or innovate new technologies. When the market encouraged a company not to develop reduction method, its primary purpose could not become true.
On the other hand, the United States has not signed the Kyoto protocol, so they have not promised any green house gas reduction to international society. Chicago climate exchange is organized a group of volunteer companies, which are interested in sustainable management. This market applied more flexible management systems. Japan was an economically second largest country, host country of Kyoto forum, and signed the protocol, but they have not organize the market. They are preparing to set up a permits trading market at Nagoya, but they are more likely to choose a regulation and subsidy based methods to meet the goal of green house gas reduction. In United States, some people prefer command-and-control system of green house gas emission reductions. (Oil & Gas Journal, 2001).

Market value
Whether the emission trade can prevent the global warming or not, that was a primary purpose of the trading, the scale of the market became bigger and bigger without it. (Euromoney, 2006). Volume of the credit trading was $10 billion in 2005, and it is going to reach $30 billion in 2006. By contrast, the trade value of sum of all wheat crops in United States was $7.1 billion in 2005. (Heather, 2006). The emission permits was started trading last 15 years, but the volume of the trade was already larger than United States food production, which has longer history as an industry. (Energy & Environment Management, 2002). In May 2006, the quantity of right to emit one tonne of carbon was 53 million, compare to 1 million units in 2005, and one analyst expected that between 2008 and 2012, the market will deal with 10 billion unites. Then the price of permits which is 16.50 euros in 2006, is going to be about 19.50 euros for 2008. (Goff, 2006). However, the trading system is not prepared well yet. In the case of another major financial market, operators are likely to release market domestic information quarterly, monthly, or even daily. On the other hand, at the European climate exchange, they released once a year. (Heather, 2006). It cause some troubles.
One day, at European climate exchange, a credit of a metric tone for 30 euros falls to 8.50 euros in a day. (Zwick, 2006), and when accidentally a European emission date was released 3 days earlier than planed, “price plummeted to 8.60 euros ($11) a metric ton, down from a high of 31 euros in mid-April” (Heather, 2006). Those show us un-sustainability of the carbon trading. Those problems damage a reputation of the market, and discourage participants being honest. If they can buy the permits cheaper than they have expected, they tend to look at market rather than work hard to reduce their emissions. According to The Economists (2006), 374m tonnes of carbon credit worth $2.7 billion. Then, 800 million tons of carbons, which worth more than 17 billion were traded on the European emission trading. (Vencat, 2006).

carbon credit trading 2

Forth, monitor and report system. It is also the same as the other financial markets, that people are trading credit, which they cannot see. Someone needs to check the quality of commodities, and guarantee it. However, still in stock markets, managers make up their accounts, which people can be certify later, to enlarge their stock prices. It is easier for managers to report fake emission quantities, which no one can see. If people cannot prohibit making up of emission result, the trading will be confused and fail the reduction of green house gases.

Fifth, a power to control the trading. The market operators need power to enforce some industries to join the credit trading and make sure that they are reporting right amount of emission from their productions. They still discuss whether they require a special international authority to maintain multinational corporations or they ought to ask states’ governments to look after companies in their countries. If there is an international market, it is necessary to international association to maintain the market directly. Otherwise, each country would have different rule on the market and corporations tend to move toward a country, where they have less strict rules. On the other hand, if countries have their own markets those governments should be neutral from any corruption concentrating on reduction of green house gases.

Fundamental souse of the idea is from a regulation on lead-in-gasoline processing during mid-1980 in US. The government regulated all companies’ productions that which company processed what amounts of lead-in-gasoline. Then, if there was a company, which wanted to produce more than their permit, they had to buy the allowance from other companies. That meant a company, which did not have efficient facilities, had to paid extra to buy the permits to continue operations, while other could earn benefits by selling their permit with developing their technologies. Over all, the government succeeded controlling the production proving incentives to both side. This market had been restricted on refiner-by-refiner only, but it opened to banking in 1985. The financing system sustained the market, cut the cost for market maintenance, and reduced lead-in-gasoline with minimum costs, so people are expecting to apply this method to reduce other productions, which have negative impacts on environment. (Harrison, 1999, p. 23-51).

Nevertheless, effectiveness and efficiency of emission trading depends on how expensive the authority control is related to other methods. To maintain the emission trading, an authority needs to set the permits for each industry, check accuracy of emission report that members submit, and they also have to observe strange change in the market. It costs some amounts of money. Therefore, the authority is able to spend same amount of funds for different methods to achieve the goal as well. For example, when they are going to reduce the green house gases, they can fund a laboratory to develop new technologies. If it is more cost effective than operating emission trading, they had better not organize emission trading. In practice, the market based emission trading is likely to more cost efficient than command-and-control policy. (Tietenberg, 1985, p. 56-57).

Original emission trading program was created by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to improve regulation process in 1980’s. That was a political movement occurred in 1970’s by president Nixon and developed to the Reaganomiscs. (Tietenberg, 1985, p. 1-3). In a transformation of economical politics from regulation and subsidy based structure to market based structure, central authority step backward from direct restriction to the emission controlling. This aspect worked well to established first emission trading, because it has a ‘command-and-control’ part and ‘free-market’ part. Conservative people were satisfied that they could control distribution of the permits and the market system gratifies the other half. (Tietenberg, 1985, p. 214-215).

In the case of taxes on petrol, it tend to weight on customers more than on merchants, so regulation tax often suffer poor people rather than multinational corporations. However, in emission trading, a company, which has trade surpluses, does not have to put extra cost on the commodity price. That is one of differences between ordinary regulation and the emission trading.

carbon credit trading 1

Definition: What is the carbon credit [emission] trading?
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions trading were established on Kyoto agreement, which was proposed in 1997. This main purpose is to reduce air pollution of developed countries to 1990’s level, and to stop the global warming. As an example of the emission trading, in the United States, 22 states organized regulations to reduce emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and set a tradable emission.

“Tradable permit” is an emission allowance that an organization regulates parties the right of maximum pollution. Members trade remainders between emission limits and real emission, among themselves. If a member pollute less than their limits they can sell the gap to another member, which polluted more than their limits. Because every association wants to maximize their profits, one side has incentive to sell more emission allowance and the other side has rational to buy less, so this system motivates the members to reduce their emissions. Economists have focused on creating a market to trade the permission for long time, because of efficiency. The market profits motivate companies, people can meet reduction target without any extra-costs, such as subsidies.

On the other hand, there are some issues related to the trading.
First, distribution of initial allowance. Some organizations would distribute the initial allowance following an indicator. The indicator must be fair to every industry, which includes different kinds of productions. Power plant industries should have larger amount of allowances per revenue, thought information industries do not have to have larger credits. Financial industries ought to have a unique type of credits that control their investment.
If a system encourages financiers to support energy efficient technologies, this would reduce more air pollutions. For example, every industry has some production scheme, one emits less green house gases than others pollutions. The allowance system could push banks to fund for less polluting productions. Moreover, if the system encourages banks to invest on a company, which developed better technology, the banks would start discovering those companies. That means companies could have double initiatives to looking at innovating technologies to accelerate the reduction of the pollutions. One is direct income from permits trading but the other is financial reason that they can fund primary asset easier. If they have more eased monetary flows, they can manage their business easier. Yet, the indicator for allowance must be fair to every industry.

Second, characteristics of carbon credit. Stock exchanges and currency markets have banking system where traders deposit their saving a while. This is because those assets do not disappear, but the air is flowing around. If an organization allows members to deposit trade permits, it is going to be more difficult to measure an outcome of the emissions’ reduction. Moreover, in the case of shares, financial companies keep those only to make profits, but it is a question that an organization should allow them or not. As positive point, those financial companies work as functions between real traders. They are going to buy at lower price, fill a lack of demand, and support suppliers, who want to sell as higher price as possible. Then they tend to sell at higher price, fill a lack of supply, and help purchasers to buy as lower price as possible. They can keep the trading stable and support the market active. As negative side, they are also able to intervene the market at different periods. If they sell the permit at the same time other real traders wants to sell, the price would drop, and real traders would lose passion on the market’s purpose, the reduction of the emission. Then, if they were going to buy the permit with other real participants, the price of heat up and real traders would not be able to buy enough amount of credit to offset their emissions.

Third, an association structure. Every industry must participate the trading or some industries do not have to join. For example, car industries should enlist in the trading alliance to reduce their emissions, because they are major causes of green house gases. (Machintosh, 2006). On the other hand, it is a considered that whether information industries need to sign up or not. They do not pollute much carbon dioxide compared to car industries. That means even when an organization set a permit on them, they do not contribute the trading much. In the case of a steel industry, the permit of emission will be a thousand tones per a company or more, and their tradable amount can be about a hundred tones surplus or negative, depending on the companies. In contrary, at information industries, the emission permit would be less than a tone, and they are going to trade about few kilograms of carbon dioxide. Their contribution to the market is very lower than steel industries, and they do not have much affect on the price of the permission that drives other industries to reduce emissions. They do not have considerable loss or benefits from the trading. Then, if an organization allowed information industries to have similar amount of carbon credit, they would have larger emission surplus and sell it in the market. That causes an oversupply of emissions’ permits and declines the trading price. In this situation, huge industries are able to buy enough amounts of carbon permits for low price from the market, so they tend to rely on consuming carbon permits, which is cheaper than investment and effort to reduce their emissions.

children solders 2

In those days the proliferation of small arms provided children with opportunities to fight against adults equally. It encourages the recruitment of children as combatants. Moreover, children have not developed their identify fully so it is easier to train children rather than mature people. (Russell & Gozdziak, 2006).

In Sri Lanka, a quota system, which discourages passing grades for Tamils, offers a Tamil Tiger a reason to recruit children as solders. Children “were told they had no future in their country unless they fought and were willing to die in the war that had begun before they were born” (Mitchell, 2006). The battlefield is commonplace for them since they were very young.

Recently in Uganda, “although there is no peace agreement in sight, many international and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) hope to assist in bringing all the child soldiers home once the war has ended” (Russell & Gozdziak, 2006). However, There is an argument between centre-based rehabilitation and community-based approach. Centre-based programme can provide specialized care with experts for trauma before they go back home, but practically, in a community-based approach, children show rapid recovery from the physical effects of war. In practice, there are three factors, which support children’s recovery, “individual personalities, supportive family and community environment, and external agencies (such as NGOs) that function as support systems for strengthening and reinforcing a child's coping efforts” (Russell & Gozdziak, 2006).
Suggestions/Recommendations

Child soldiers need three main aspects for rehabilitation; both of the internal and external community that support them, and personal motivation.

First, they need support for mental and physical rehabilitation. However, conditions of child soldiers are all different. Some are addicted by drugs, and some are alcoholic. Also, every soldier has different experience. Some have really basic primary education, but some do not even know their families. Moreover, during wars, some became adults while the other are still children. Each condition requires different treatment. Therefore, each NGO should narrow their object and they should construct strategies to support rehabilitation of their children. It is difficult to support all children for a NGO, but they can share their jobs, depending on their specialties. Highly drug addicted children would need experts help through a centre-based approach, while community-based works would help psychosocial rehabilitation for less addicted children. Then, a NGO with some medical experts should act as a centre-based organisation, which protects children from real society. Other NGOs should work to connect the local community and children for integration.

Secondly, they need dream for their future to motivate themselves, but on a battlefield survival is the main purpose and they cannot think about their future. So, the NGO should provide them peace places where no one abducts them. Then, they need education to make dreams come true or to get employed. The contents of education are important to support their economical situation, independence and reconstruction of countries. If the educational system is not prepared enough and the economy of the country cannot have competitiveness in the global market, monetary NGOs cannot support long-term rehabilitation and development. NGOs should focus on education about Information Technology and foreign languages. Particularly, software-programming industries that require fewer infrastructures such as Internet connections, a minimum amount of electricity and computers, compared to factories that require facilities, transportation systems, more electricity, and raw materials. Moreover, productivity per capita of programming work tends to be higher than other industries, so computing offers better living standards for employees. In addition, if they have competitive technological and language skills, they are able to find better jobs in developed countries when they leave their countries. No government wants to lose their domestic labours, so the presser would encourage commanders to face peace agreement, which sustain their society and attract people.