2010年7月26日-3
The Systemic Concept of Species 20081106
システム的種概念 [英文テキスト20081106]
2008年11月5日にでっちあげたppt [sic!] ファイルを、ようやく発掘したので、その英文テキストを（1枚の図のテキスト部分も含めて）参照に供したい。
This paper "The Systemic Concept of Species" was presented by Keiichi ONOYAMA at ISHPSSB off-year workshop in Kobe, held at Kobe University, on 6 November 2008.
"===" means the bolderline of two succesive slides.
=== // the beginning
0a.
The Systemic Concept of Species
Keiichi ONOYAMA
(A philosophical scientist of our village Earth)
ISHPSSB off-year workshop in Kobe,
2008.11.6 [6 November 2008]
A species as an integrated system with hierarchically controlled, organism-producing mechanisms
===
0b.
My view is:
materialist
systemist
unversificationist
wholist
hylozoist
idealist
realist
===
0c.
(Ontological thesis)
Everything is connected to everything else
(Methodological thesis)
Some things are connected to some things else
===
1. Classification and taxa
Species category is used as a nominal or categorical variable in biological classification. An identification result of an organism is expressed by a species name, which is a value of the variable. In this way, we can measure or represent our biological world, and so species taxa are fundamental units, and we can count the number of species within a space by observation (=identification) of organisms. Thus, species taxa are classes as we define them by properties or characters which are observed about organisms.
===
2. Membership
You may say, ‘it is a human’. The statement of this expression means, “that thing is a thing which belong to Homo sapiens”, or when used symbols
" h1 ∈ _Homo sapiens_ ".
What kind of relation is there between a human (individual in the philosophical sense) and _Homo sapiens_ ? The taxon name ‘Homo sapiens’ expresses a class concept in classification. The reason is that, in general, between individuals and a class are membership relation. It is a membership relation, not a part-whole relation between the two. Classes are our constructs. We should not identify a class with any group of individuals (e.g., organisms).
===
2b. Membership
_Homo sapiens_ ≠ {h1, h2, h3, ..., hi, ..., hn}
at a given time, or
assembled through its total duration
===
3. Essential relation in biology
Membership is a classificatory or set-theoretical relation. Although we can infer or calculate some thing from formulations based on membership relations, we must construe or assign a biological meaning(s). Then, what is the corresponding, best explained or essential relation in biology ?
I think it is the relation between a producing system and its products: a species system with organism-producing mechanism and the organisms produced.
===
4. The systemic concept of species
Why we can use a set of characters for the definition of a species taxon is that those organisms are produced by one and the same system.
I define a species as an organism-producing system. Namely, a species is a system with an integrated mechanism of mehcanisms some of which make possible to produce organisms (thus we can identify organisms at the species level of taxonomic hierarchy).
===
5. Species concepts so far proposed
Many species concepts use "organisms" for definition, together with a some relationship between them) as definiens. However, in my opinion, a species is not composed of organisms, but a system as a whole.
===
6. Ontogenetic or developmental system
A system (in general) can be identified or expressed by its mechanism. The most interesting or important system in biology is the organism-producing system.
This system will be possible to infer on the basis of knowledge of development (ontogenesis). Analysis of many molecule-molecule interactions involved in ontogenesis will indicate or show the organism-producing system.
===
7. Human-subjective classifications
In biological classification, the objects are solely organisms (material entities). Properties we observe about organisms and classes (conceptual entities) constructed from organism's properties are our constructs. Objectivity exists in an objective classificatory procedure, such as a simultaneous classification method based on the distribution of properties among organisms and organisms attached with properties.
This procedure is subjective if you do not show the reasons of choice of the method. Further, it is subjective too in the choice of properties or predicates (see "the theorem of the ugly duckling" of Satoshi Watanabe; Onoyama 1995).
===
8. Equivalent classes
It is a requisite for classification to establish equivalent classes.
Mahner & Bunge (1997: 222, Definition 7.2:
Any class of fully nomologically equivalent entities is called a natural kind _sensu stricto_ or (ontological) ‘species’. )
defines an ontological species as any class of fully nomologically equivalent entities.
===
9. Natural or objective classification and Establishment of species taxa
Equivalent classes will be constructed with the aid of expression of mechanisms, and again I stress that this can be done because of the discreteness of producing mechanisms.
(However, discreteness observed in the distribution among e.g. morphological characters of organisms is not necessary for systems to establish. We know interbred organisms which are reproduced by, for example, a female belonging to one species and a male belonging to another species. Such identification is possible because we have a classification at the species level.)
===
10. Resulting behaviors of one system
A species system has many mechanisms. It is the organism-producing mechanism that brings about cohesion observed in characters or behaviors among the organisms, as well as parent-child relationshp between the organisms
(these characters or behaviors enable us identification of a given organism to a species taxon).
===
10b. Resulting behaviors of one system
The species concepts so far proposed are captured to the phenomena produced by the essential behavior of species systems. We should capture the essenses of species systems.
Biological classification, hence the establishment or fomulation of taxa, must be based on these invarient essenses. Such conception makes construction of classes sound. Classification is an essentialistic activity.
===
11. Identity of species and cohesion among organisms
Organisms or some relation among organisms do not give a cohesion, but it is the identity of a species system from which organisms are produced by its integrated procedure of (sub)mechanisms. Integity or cohesion observed about organisms bvelonging to one species is a result of implementation into organisms so that the organisms manifest the system (sub)mechanisms.
===
12. Equifinality
Actual results of organismal development depends upon the environmental conditions of the developing organism.
But equifinality is in most cases realized irrespective of even hard environmental conditions. It shows the robustness of the organism-producing system. The mechanism itself are considered stable.
===
12b. Equifinality
The system must be have many aptive regulative mechanisms largely independent of the organism's environmental variation, for example, shortage of materials, shortage of energy, etc.
"Erroneous" "switching" responses, thus "wrong" form production are the results of due responses of (or reaultant processes of) mechanisms which are specific or proper to the system.
===
13. You can't make something out of nothing
A system cannot produce something out of nothing. To make things of some sort, the system needs materials and kinds of energies and procedures of construction incouding appropriate environmental conditions.
Organisms are equipped with these needs inside or intake from their environment (e.g., feeding prey or going to a place with a range of appropriate temperature conditions).
===
14. Discovering the mechanisms (and "logic") in producing organisms (developmental processes)
In biological world, we can observe a process, named as a developmental process. It is organism-producing process. We should clarify its mechanism. Clarification of development in terms of molecules seems very suggestive.
===
15. Mechanismic standpoint
For the production of organisms, I assume a mechanism, or more precisely, an assembly of hierarchically controlled mechanisms. Of course, the production of organisms is ontogenesis including morphogenesis.
Therefore an organisms- producing mechanism (or an assembly or a system of hierarchically controlled mechanisms) is a developmental mechanism.
===
15b. Mechanismic standpoint
The mechanism is implemented inside the organism. Production of organisms is realized or materialized by the realization of many conditions under laws (or boding relations among things) together with environmental conditions (some organisms incorporated suitable environmental conditions as their inside conditions, which are realized as especially molecular morphologies).
===
16. Descriptive terms of a system
From the systemic viewpoint, the description terms are:
・material composition (a list of kinds of molecules and organelles),
・activities or functions of entities,
・mechanisms which enables those activities,
・relation among mechanisms (a hierarchically systematic representation of an integrated, spatiotemporally controlled mechanism of submechanisms),
・relevant underlying laws,
・relevant environmental conditions (including spatiotemporal arrangements of molecules)
===
16b. Descriptive terms of a system
A mechanism works due to spatiotemporally regulated thing-thing(-thing) interactions. Further, the (material) things such as molecules are circumstanced under spatiotemporal arrangements of other molecules and environmental factors.
===
17. Mechanismic explanation
Bechtel & Abrahamsen (2005) contrasted mechanismic explanations to nomological explanations for their argument, and did not relate mechanisms with laws. However, mechanismic explanations must include reference to laws. For, it is (at least partly) laws that makes mechanisms possible to work. Spatiotemporal arrangements of many kinds of molecules under physical and chemical laws (at least partly) form mechanisms and submechanisms (Morphologenetic field constraints also may participate).
===
18. Representation of a mechanism
Thus, the representation of a mechanism should indicate the law(s) and the kinds of spatiotemporal arrangements concerned, and fully show the necessary and satisfactory conditions and otherwise switching and compensatory mechanisms (biological systems often have compensatory or alternative subsystems and such subsystems' mechanisms start to work when lacking some of the required conditions (e.g., materials for chemical synthesis, or a whole organism's system may be in the state of minimum metabolism, and so on).
Mechanismic (hence systemic) viewpoint universifies morphological and functional aspects of organisms.
===
19. Forces
What are the forces under which entities interact in the development of organisms (ontogeny). At the molecular magnitude of physical size, the forces are
・geometrico-mechanical,
・electro-chemical,
・thermodynamic (e.g., diffusion in the medium),
・electro-magnetic.
===
19b. Forces
(These categories are modified ones given by Machamer et al. 2000 about the examples of molecular biology and molecular neurobiology.)
We may add the "force" of morphogenetic field. one of the reasons of this addition is, in my opinion, that the mechanisms of 3-dimensional formation of molecules are somewhat clarified, but the mechanism of or force used for morphogenesis is not yet known.
===
20. Description of a species as an organism-producing (mechanismic) system
A taxonomic description of a species is composed of statements that organisms belonging to the species necessarily have characters (essenses). These essential charcters or essences are produced by the system. Thus, more essentially, we give a description of the essenses of the system.
A species system is best expressed as a representation of a whole system of mechanisms which are hierarchically controlled.
===
21. Systemic description
It may be an approximation to give a schema showing a hierarchically controlled system of organism-producing mechanisms, because perhaps a species sytem have other mechanisms than organism-producing mechanisms. However, organism-producing mechanisms are the most essential for the system itself.
===
22. Discriminating species systems
Discriminating and figuring a system is practically very difficult. However, it is now close to possible. We can compare (at least parts of) developmental systems of organisms belonging to several taxa. Fortunately, developmental systems are rapidly being clarified. We will be able to detect or recognize species systems, for example, by doing simultaneous classification of organisms and a set of schemata representing organism-producing mechanismic systems. This procedure may be done with reference to the results of morphologically classified groups of organisms (of course it should be compared with the results of other classificatory procedures).
===
23. Sketches or schemata of mechanisms
Many mechanisms of biomolecule production and morphogenesis are being clarified and expresse as many sketches, schemata or figures with arrows including entities and their activities (functions) with their environmental conditions (and rarely shown the ceteris paribus conditions, which are usually hidden on the background).
Biological world seems indeed very complex. Complexity in a system shall be explained as a hierarchically controlled, complecated, mechanismic system. Explaining is one of the joyful our human activity.
===
24. Formulation of species systems
A systematically related representation of the organism-producing mechanism is ideal. Comparisons of (representation of) hierarchically controlling, organism-producing mechanisms shall clarify the existence of species-specific mechanisms, hence species-specific systems which have the mechanisms.
===
24b. Formulation of species systems
But there will be many missing pieces of diagrams or schemata at the present. It is hoped that many diagrams or schemata are made about many mechanisms implemented in organisms belonging to many taxa, to the degrees of precision as possible. Wider ranged and more precise comparison will make clear the species system's behaviors and hence our biological world.
===
file=SCSfigure1.doc
[text parts]
Systemic Concept of Species
Species system with an organism-producing mechanism
Hierarchical control
of timing and kinds and quantities
of supply and transformation
of many kinds of materials
Background _ceteris paribus_ conditions
Energy
Materials
Producing mechanisms
Developmental stage
(death) Short of or delay of materials
Process interrupted
organism
Malcontrol due to poisonous substance or system paramters (e.g., DNA seauences)
<paradogma>
Time
Development
===
25. The degree (and kind) of reality of species systems
Is a mechanism or a system real, namely a really existing thing (or a concrete thing sensu Mahner & Bunge 1997)? The answer of course depends on the meaning or definition of "real" or "really existing".
The reality of something depends on our manipulability, which depends on mainly our detection ability. Here defined species systems are at the first place constructs. But if someone hopes, and in a future, we may detect them as material things.
I would like to propose a general question. Is a law or a mechanism real ?
===
26. A mechanism, mechanisms, so systems !
In my conceptualizaion of species, a system may be a conceptual thing which a human constructs, or a real material thing. At least a mechanismic model representing a mechanism can be constructed (needless to say, a model is a construct). Whether or not a mechanism is real is an open question to be examined empirically.
Making models of species systems or data for it will clarify the ontic problem. Also, our detective apparatuses (including the theories involved) will develop further, then we will see clearly many things.
===
27. References
Bechtel, W. & Abrahamsen, A. 2005. Explanation: a mechanist alternative. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 36: 421-441.
Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C.F. 2000. Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science, 67: 1-25.
Mahner, M. & Bunge, M. 1997. Foundations of Biophilosophy. xviii+423pp. Springer-Verlag. [Japanese translation by K. Onoyama. 2008. xxi+556pp. Springer Japan. ]
===
27b. References
Watanabe, S. 1969. Knowing and Guessing: A Quantitative Study of Inference and Information. xiii+592pp. John Wiley & Sons.
Webster, G. 1996. The Problem of Form. In Webster, G. & Goodwin, B., Form and Transformation: Generative and Relational Principles in Biology, pp.1-125. Cambridge University Press.
(*Woodward, J. 2002. What is a mechanism?: a counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science, 69: S366-S377.)
===
The systemic concept of species
A species =def a system with a mechanism which produces its organisms
THANK YOU VERY MUCH !
=== Fine //
The Systemic Concept of Species 20081106
システム的種概念 [英文テキスト20081106]
2008年11月5日にでっちあげたppt [sic!] ファイルを、ようやく発掘したので、その英文テキストを（1枚の図のテキスト部分も含めて）参照に供したい。
This paper "The Systemic Concept of Species" was presented by Keiichi ONOYAMA at ISHPSSB off-year workshop in Kobe, held at Kobe University, on 6 November 2008.
"===" means the bolderline of two succesive slides.
=== // the beginning
0a.
The Systemic Concept of Species
Keiichi ONOYAMA
(A philosophical scientist of our village Earth)
ISHPSSB off-year workshop in Kobe,
2008.11.6 [6 November 2008]
A species as an integrated system with hierarchically controlled, organism-producing mechanisms
===
0b.
My view is:
materialist
systemist
unversificationist
wholist
hylozoist
idealist
realist
===
0c.
(Ontological thesis)
Everything is connected to everything else
(Methodological thesis)
Some things are connected to some things else
===
1. Classification and taxa
Species category is used as a nominal or categorical variable in biological classification. An identification result of an organism is expressed by a species name, which is a value of the variable. In this way, we can measure or represent our biological world, and so species taxa are fundamental units, and we can count the number of species within a space by observation (=identification) of organisms. Thus, species taxa are classes as we define them by properties or characters which are observed about organisms.
===
2. Membership
You may say, ‘it is a human’. The statement of this expression means, “that thing is a thing which belong to Homo sapiens”, or when used symbols
" h1 ∈ _Homo sapiens_ ".
What kind of relation is there between a human (individual in the philosophical sense) and _Homo sapiens_ ? The taxon name ‘Homo sapiens’ expresses a class concept in classification. The reason is that, in general, between individuals and a class are membership relation. It is a membership relation, not a part-whole relation between the two. Classes are our constructs. We should not identify a class with any group of individuals (e.g., organisms).
===
2b. Membership
_Homo sapiens_ ≠ {h1, h2, h3, ..., hi, ..., hn}
at a given time, or
assembled through its total duration
===
3. Essential relation in biology
Membership is a classificatory or set-theoretical relation. Although we can infer or calculate some thing from formulations based on membership relations, we must construe or assign a biological meaning(s). Then, what is the corresponding, best explained or essential relation in biology ?
I think it is the relation between a producing system and its products: a species system with organism-producing mechanism and the organisms produced.
===
4. The systemic concept of species
Why we can use a set of characters for the definition of a species taxon is that those organisms are produced by one and the same system.
I define a species as an organism-producing system. Namely, a species is a system with an integrated mechanism of mehcanisms some of which make possible to produce organisms (thus we can identify organisms at the species level of taxonomic hierarchy).
===
5. Species concepts so far proposed
Many species concepts use "organisms" for definition, together with a some relationship between them) as definiens. However, in my opinion, a species is not composed of organisms, but a system as a whole.
===
6. Ontogenetic or developmental system
A system (in general) can be identified or expressed by its mechanism. The most interesting or important system in biology is the organism-producing system.
This system will be possible to infer on the basis of knowledge of development (ontogenesis). Analysis of many molecule-molecule interactions involved in ontogenesis will indicate or show the organism-producing system.
===
7. Human-subjective classifications
In biological classification, the objects are solely organisms (material entities). Properties we observe about organisms and classes (conceptual entities) constructed from organism's properties are our constructs. Objectivity exists in an objective classificatory procedure, such as a simultaneous classification method based on the distribution of properties among organisms and organisms attached with properties.
This procedure is subjective if you do not show the reasons of choice of the method. Further, it is subjective too in the choice of properties or predicates (see "the theorem of the ugly duckling" of Satoshi Watanabe; Onoyama 1995).
===
8. Equivalent classes
It is a requisite for classification to establish equivalent classes.
Mahner & Bunge (1997: 222, Definition 7.2:
Any class of fully nomologically equivalent entities is called a natural kind _sensu stricto_ or (ontological) ‘species’. )
defines an ontological species as any class of fully nomologically equivalent entities.
===
9. Natural or objective classification and Establishment of species taxa
Equivalent classes will be constructed with the aid of expression of mechanisms, and again I stress that this can be done because of the discreteness of producing mechanisms.
(However, discreteness observed in the distribution among e.g. morphological characters of organisms is not necessary for systems to establish. We know interbred organisms which are reproduced by, for example, a female belonging to one species and a male belonging to another species. Such identification is possible because we have a classification at the species level.)
===
10. Resulting behaviors of one system
A species system has many mechanisms. It is the organism-producing mechanism that brings about cohesion observed in characters or behaviors among the organisms, as well as parent-child relationshp between the organisms
(these characters or behaviors enable us identification of a given organism to a species taxon).
===
10b. Resulting behaviors of one system
The species concepts so far proposed are captured to the phenomena produced by the essential behavior of species systems. We should capture the essenses of species systems.
Biological classification, hence the establishment or fomulation of taxa, must be based on these invarient essenses. Such conception makes construction of classes sound. Classification is an essentialistic activity.
===
11. Identity of species and cohesion among organisms
Organisms or some relation among organisms do not give a cohesion, but it is the identity of a species system from which organisms are produced by its integrated procedure of (sub)mechanisms. Integity or cohesion observed about organisms bvelonging to one species is a result of implementation into organisms so that the organisms manifest the system (sub)mechanisms.
===
12. Equifinality
Actual results of organismal development depends upon the environmental conditions of the developing organism.
But equifinality is in most cases realized irrespective of even hard environmental conditions. It shows the robustness of the organism-producing system. The mechanism itself are considered stable.
===
12b. Equifinality
The system must be have many aptive regulative mechanisms largely independent of the organism's environmental variation, for example, shortage of materials, shortage of energy, etc.
"Erroneous" "switching" responses, thus "wrong" form production are the results of due responses of (or reaultant processes of) mechanisms which are specific or proper to the system.
===
13. You can't make something out of nothing
A system cannot produce something out of nothing. To make things of some sort, the system needs materials and kinds of energies and procedures of construction incouding appropriate environmental conditions.
Organisms are equipped with these needs inside or intake from their environment (e.g., feeding prey or going to a place with a range of appropriate temperature conditions).
===
14. Discovering the mechanisms (and "logic") in producing organisms (developmental processes)
In biological world, we can observe a process, named as a developmental process. It is organism-producing process. We should clarify its mechanism. Clarification of development in terms of molecules seems very suggestive.
===
15. Mechanismic standpoint
For the production of organisms, I assume a mechanism, or more precisely, an assembly of hierarchically controlled mechanisms. Of course, the production of organisms is ontogenesis including morphogenesis.
Therefore an organisms- producing mechanism (or an assembly or a system of hierarchically controlled mechanisms) is a developmental mechanism.
===
15b. Mechanismic standpoint
The mechanism is implemented inside the organism. Production of organisms is realized or materialized by the realization of many conditions under laws (or boding relations among things) together with environmental conditions (some organisms incorporated suitable environmental conditions as their inside conditions, which are realized as especially molecular morphologies).
===
16. Descriptive terms of a system
From the systemic viewpoint, the description terms are:
・material composition (a list of kinds of molecules and organelles),
・activities or functions of entities,
・mechanisms which enables those activities,
・relation among mechanisms (a hierarchically systematic representation of an integrated, spatiotemporally controlled mechanism of submechanisms),
・relevant underlying laws,
・relevant environmental conditions (including spatiotemporal arrangements of molecules)
===
16b. Descriptive terms of a system
A mechanism works due to spatiotemporally regulated thing-thing(-thing) interactions. Further, the (material) things such as molecules are circumstanced under spatiotemporal arrangements of other molecules and environmental factors.
===
17. Mechanismic explanation
Bechtel & Abrahamsen (2005) contrasted mechanismic explanations to nomological explanations for their argument, and did not relate mechanisms with laws. However, mechanismic explanations must include reference to laws. For, it is (at least partly) laws that makes mechanisms possible to work. Spatiotemporal arrangements of many kinds of molecules under physical and chemical laws (at least partly) form mechanisms and submechanisms (Morphologenetic field constraints also may participate).
===
18. Representation of a mechanism
Thus, the representation of a mechanism should indicate the law(s) and the kinds of spatiotemporal arrangements concerned, and fully show the necessary and satisfactory conditions and otherwise switching and compensatory mechanisms (biological systems often have compensatory or alternative subsystems and such subsystems' mechanisms start to work when lacking some of the required conditions (e.g., materials for chemical synthesis, or a whole organism's system may be in the state of minimum metabolism, and so on).
Mechanismic (hence systemic) viewpoint universifies morphological and functional aspects of organisms.
===
19. Forces
What are the forces under which entities interact in the development of organisms (ontogeny). At the molecular magnitude of physical size, the forces are
・geometrico-mechanical,
・electro-chemical,
・thermodynamic (e.g., diffusion in the medium),
・electro-magnetic.
===
19b. Forces
(These categories are modified ones given by Machamer et al. 2000 about the examples of molecular biology and molecular neurobiology.)
We may add the "force" of morphogenetic field. one of the reasons of this addition is, in my opinion, that the mechanisms of 3-dimensional formation of molecules are somewhat clarified, but the mechanism of or force used for morphogenesis is not yet known.
===
20. Description of a species as an organism-producing (mechanismic) system
A taxonomic description of a species is composed of statements that organisms belonging to the species necessarily have characters (essenses). These essential charcters or essences are produced by the system. Thus, more essentially, we give a description of the essenses of the system.
A species system is best expressed as a representation of a whole system of mechanisms which are hierarchically controlled.
===
21. Systemic description
It may be an approximation to give a schema showing a hierarchically controlled system of organism-producing mechanisms, because perhaps a species sytem have other mechanisms than organism-producing mechanisms. However, organism-producing mechanisms are the most essential for the system itself.
===
22. Discriminating species systems
Discriminating and figuring a system is practically very difficult. However, it is now close to possible. We can compare (at least parts of) developmental systems of organisms belonging to several taxa. Fortunately, developmental systems are rapidly being clarified. We will be able to detect or recognize species systems, for example, by doing simultaneous classification of organisms and a set of schemata representing organism-producing mechanismic systems. This procedure may be done with reference to the results of morphologically classified groups of organisms (of course it should be compared with the results of other classificatory procedures).
===
23. Sketches or schemata of mechanisms
Many mechanisms of biomolecule production and morphogenesis are being clarified and expresse as many sketches, schemata or figures with arrows including entities and their activities (functions) with their environmental conditions (and rarely shown the ceteris paribus conditions, which are usually hidden on the background).
Biological world seems indeed very complex. Complexity in a system shall be explained as a hierarchically controlled, complecated, mechanismic system. Explaining is one of the joyful our human activity.
===
24. Formulation of species systems
A systematically related representation of the organism-producing mechanism is ideal. Comparisons of (representation of) hierarchically controlling, organism-producing mechanisms shall clarify the existence of species-specific mechanisms, hence species-specific systems which have the mechanisms.
===
24b. Formulation of species systems
But there will be many missing pieces of diagrams or schemata at the present. It is hoped that many diagrams or schemata are made about many mechanisms implemented in organisms belonging to many taxa, to the degrees of precision as possible. Wider ranged and more precise comparison will make clear the species system's behaviors and hence our biological world.
===
file=SCSfigure1.doc
[text parts]
Systemic Concept of Species
Species system with an organism-producing mechanism
Hierarchical control
of timing and kinds and quantities
of supply and transformation
of many kinds of materials
Background _ceteris paribus_ conditions
Energy
Materials
Producing mechanisms
Developmental stage
(death) Short of or delay of materials
Process interrupted
organism
Malcontrol due to poisonous substance or system paramters (e.g., DNA seauences)
<paradogma>
Time
Development
===
25. The degree (and kind) of reality of species systems
Is a mechanism or a system real, namely a really existing thing (or a concrete thing sensu Mahner & Bunge 1997)? The answer of course depends on the meaning or definition of "real" or "really existing".
The reality of something depends on our manipulability, which depends on mainly our detection ability. Here defined species systems are at the first place constructs. But if someone hopes, and in a future, we may detect them as material things.
I would like to propose a general question. Is a law or a mechanism real ?
===
26. A mechanism, mechanisms, so systems !
In my conceptualizaion of species, a system may be a conceptual thing which a human constructs, or a real material thing. At least a mechanismic model representing a mechanism can be constructed (needless to say, a model is a construct). Whether or not a mechanism is real is an open question to be examined empirically.
Making models of species systems or data for it will clarify the ontic problem. Also, our detective apparatuses (including the theories involved) will develop further, then we will see clearly many things.
===
27. References
Bechtel, W. & Abrahamsen, A. 2005. Explanation: a mechanist alternative. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 36: 421-441.
Machamer, P., Darden, L. & Craver, C.F. 2000. Thinking about mechanisms. Philosophy of Science, 67: 1-25.
Mahner, M. & Bunge, M. 1997. Foundations of Biophilosophy. xviii+423pp. Springer-Verlag. [Japanese translation by K. Onoyama. 2008. xxi+556pp. Springer Japan. ]
===
27b. References
Watanabe, S. 1969. Knowing and Guessing: A Quantitative Study of Inference and Information. xiii+592pp. John Wiley & Sons.
Webster, G. 1996. The Problem of Form. In Webster, G. & Goodwin, B., Form and Transformation: Generative and Relational Principles in Biology, pp.1-125. Cambridge University Press.
(*Woodward, J. 2002. What is a mechanism?: a counterfactual account. Philosophy of Science, 69: S366-S377.)
===
The systemic concept of species
A species =def a system with a mechanism which produces its organisms
THANK YOU VERY MUCH !
=== Fine //