Essay代写：Agnes heller's understanding of the realization of social morality

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Agnes heller's understanding of the realization of social morality，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了阿格妮丝·赫勒对社会道德实现的看法。阿格妮丝·赫勒是东欧马克思主义理论家，也是布达佩斯学派的主要代表人物，面对20世纪西方资本主义现代性危机所带来的责任缺失、道德沦丧等现实状况，赫勒力图将伦理道德理论落实到行动中去，追求一种只问耕耘、不问收获的过程。这是一种不断处于未完成状态，充满了无限可能性的道德哲学。赫勒对人类的现状、人的境况充满了一种不确定的悲观主义情绪。基于这样一种悲观判断，赫勒并没有相应地采取同样悲观的方式去发展她的道德哲学，反而是以一种积极前进的方式阐述其重构道德的理想。

Faced with the modern crisis of the western society in the 20th century, individual morality and responsibility are in continuous loss and bankruptcy. However, history is the history of mankind. As the only creature with history, man has left his responsibility behind and become a single line man without thoughts and exists as a batch product of natural science. The experience of reality leads heller to reflect deeply on this phenomenon, and she tries to ask what makes human beings lose their morality and responsibility. With the exploration of this problem, heller gradually constructed a moral utopia world which is infinite and tends to be perfect with the elements of ordinary and realistic "good people", and tried to regain the moral and responsibility of human beings. Among them, although there is no clear definition of "good man", "good man" should be the way that everyone can become and be able to become, and it is a universal reflection that exists in real social communication. The reality of morality may be precisely because of the possibility of good man. Such a moral utopia world, its practical significance and the value is not perfectly realize the best moral world eventually, but in the constant pursuit of ethical, moral, ethical, in the process to make more and more people realize their potential and become their own moral standard under the "good guys", finally realize the overall development of man.

Agnes Heller, a marxist theorist in eastern Europe and the main representative of the Budapest school, tried to put ethical and moral theories into action in the face of the reality such as the lack of responsibility and moral bankruptcy brought by the crisis of western capitalism modernity in the 20th century, and pursued a process of "no harvest, no work". It is a moral philosophy that is constantly in an unfinished state, full of infinite possibilities. Faced with the trauma of world war ii, heller was baffled by the conditions of human existence, trying to ask how the natural sciences that humanity prides itself on could be transformed into the dynamics of modern warfare, and where the invention of auschwitz had put humanity. It can be said that heller is full of an uncertain pessimism about the current situation and human condition. "a long period of stable hunting and gathering with small amplitude accompanied by the obvious temporary fluorescence leading to the rapid extinction of technology and society" is a pessimistic summary of human development. Human beings have become thoughtless one-dimensional creatures, "completely tame, completely controlled." The propositions of freedom, morality, and responsibility have lost their solidity and become slaves to machines and capital.

Based on such a pessimistic judgment, heller did not adopt the same pessimistic way to develop her moral philosophy, but expounded her ideal of reconstructing morality in a positive way. Although "good man" is the core element of heller's moral philosophy, heller does not pay attention to the deterministic interpretation of the concept of "good man". Heller paid more attention to the condition of "how good people are possible" than to the definition of "good people". To this end, heller sets up a moral utopia, describing a world with the best moral possibilities for "good people." In the best moral world, people conduct rational communication and negotiation for mutual benefit and follow the common universal values of freedom and life. Such a moral utopia does not mean that it can never be realized, but stands on earth as a spiritual pillar. Although the perfect moral world does not exist and may not be realized, the process of moral progress should become the eternal pursuit of human beings, and the final moral result is not so important. It can be said that this is an infinitely close to the full moral road of active struggle. "As long as good people exist, as long as accidental people choose to be good people, moral utopia is not a distant goal." Because there is a realistic possibility, so with hope to pursue.

Modern people are born with "human program", shaping their own thinking, action and behavior mode in modern social norms to adapt to the living social environment. Through discourse, behavior and communication, individual experience gradually forms its own unique perspective of experience, which serves as the basis for its unique judgment and choice of behavior. Here, we can not help but ask: how do people have the concept of "morality" in the modern society? Is conscience, as an ability to experience morality, possessed by everyone? Is it by instinct or is it the accumulation and education of acquired experience? As heller said, "whether morality is' from 'nature or contradicted by it, this is an unavoidable problem for any moral philosophy."

Heller makes a very wise judgment about the nature of human nature. She never fantasizes about the goodness of human nature, nor denies the evil of human nature. The judgment of good and evil of human nature is not the focus of heller's moral philosophy, but she pays more attention to the recognition of the relative existence of good and evil. In real life, there will be people who are good for good, and there will be people who are evil for evil. To face evil, to realize good, to have the opportunity to be good. It is in the ethical choice that the abandonment of evil becomes good. In general, heller acknowledges that "the concept of 'human nature' is polymorphic, vague, and carries the meaning of subgenera." Human nature is both good and bad. Therefore, since the concept of "human nature" is too abstract and complex, heller prefers arendt's concept of "the human condition" when exploring how people's moral behaviors come into being.

Heller had three descriptions of the "human condition," which, in a nutshell, are social norms that substitute for instinctive norms; Second, "living in tension" is historic; Third, historical determinacy and self-determinacy under the condition of historical rift. To be specific, first of all, "human condition" begins when human beings complete the replacement of instinctive norms by social norms, which is the double embodiment of human potential and limitation. The difference between man and other animals lies in that man's potential is to teach man how to control his "savage instinct", rather than to vent his animal desire like wild animals and ignore the norms of social communication. Secondly, social norms are created in a certain period of time and under certain social conditions, which are bound to have their limitations and scope of application. From the aspect of its scope of application, the social norm embodies the finiteness of human being, while from the aspect of the constant transformation of social norm and even the structural change replaced, it also depicts the infinite potential of human being. In a mobile social communication environment, human beings are constantly making social norms to adapt to their own survival changes. This is "the 'human condition' embodied as' living in tension '". In modern society, everyone is born with two congenital contingency, one is born contingency, the other is growth contingency. In two kinds of congenital chance together, the innate potential for congenital social reasons are gradually, and congenital society changing due to infinite inspire the potential of people, because the social norms are often specific, limited, and the potential of people can't see the boundary, so people always live in the tension between the two and inevitable between historic of the life. That is to say, as long as life in society, must live in society and people's own contradictions, a person with their genetic parts to adapt to the natural society, but the people of unlimited determines the inevitable contradictions, people and society when this contradiction is too large, will adjust social rules, and even will be replaced by a new social rules. In this process, the more people develop and improve, the more they will not adapt to social norms. This is the manifestation of the incomplete connection between the two innate things, and also the presentation of the third meaning of "human situation". People's growth process is instinct norms and social norms regulating the process of each other, and in this process, people will inevitably experience social norms to replace instinct specification, instinct specification by people's moral self regression, finally become the dominant standard that instinctive specification, rather than being muzzled by social norms, losing one's own dynamic characteristics. Each person transforms the individual innate genetic contingency and innate specific social contingency into human destiny, which is the process of man becoming the pilot of his own destiny. In the process of social communication, he constantly makes his own choices and continuously Bridges the historical cracks. Just as "the essence of man is not the inherent abstract of a single individual, in its reality, it is the sum of all social relations". Heller's understanding of "human condition" from the objective activities of human is to explore the meaning of human essence in social norms. Morality is not an abstract demand for individuals, but a strong desire to return to daily life and a guiding demand for the concrete behavior of interacting with people. However, why are there so many different moral standards in daily life?

In the course of human civilization, it is not difficult to observe that different civilizations have different moral standards. The difference in moral standards in diverse cultures does not mean that human civilization develops vertically or backward. This phenomenon can only explain that human beings will have different moral standards due to different social needs in different forms of social communication. The development of human civilization has never been a single line of progress or degradation. Experience and the development of human potential show us that human civilization is diverse and overlapping, and the resulting moral norms and rules cannot be universally applicable to all cultures or all human beings. Therefore, what we need to do is to explore why morality of one kind or another arises in a particular civilization, at a particular moment, rather than pursue a universal moral standard that can never meet all people's needs. Once moral standards are static and unchanging, they will not bring order to human beings, but the fetters of order. As a matter of fact, the changeable and varied standards of substantive morality are not only due to the existence of a pluralistic cultural society, but also due to the inevitable umbilical cord that cannot be perfectly connected between the ego and social norms. The greater the difference between the self and others, between the self and society, the more the extra meaning of the self can be embodied in the relationship with others, that is, those meanings which are not provided by the universal norm. Therefore, it is only in diverse societies that cultural surplus can be generated and various moral standards and norms can be constantly changed, adjusted and enriched, making them always mobile, rather than making human society become a collection of rigid and unchangeable social norms. Under different social circumstances, people have different interest requirements, and the generation of morality in line with human interest is what the civilization of each period needs to pursue due to its necessary social communication. The recognition of the relatively dynamic adjustment of moral standards is not only a prerequisite for maintaining the interests of human beings and carrying out smooth social communication, but also the only way to formulate moral rules and norms in line with the specific reality, rather than make social reality adapt to rigid moral rules and norms.

At the individual level, individual character and unique social experience bring different moral standards to everyone. Everyone has his or her own way of social interaction, principles, and different values based on individual experience. There will be 10 million different ideas among 10 million people. Although some ideas will be similar and similar, there will inevitably be contradictions and conflicts among some ideas. To be specific, since people are social beings, they will inevitably accumulate more and more social experience in the process of communicating with others, and everyone's social experience will not be exactly the same, so the individual values gradually constructed will not be exactly the same. In the same way, in human relationships, the meaning of my existence is better understood by others than by me. For in others, people see my force in their lives, which is a meaning that exists only in relationships, and a single person can never form a meaning, but only themselves. Heller once said, "experience is so heterogeneous, so all-encompassing, that its main forms are hard to count. Experience, as a settled experience, carries the meaning that makes our body relevant to other meaningful bodies." This is to say that experience has individual differences and is completely heterogeneous. In daily life, experience is bound to be all-encompassing, which is accumulated in practice and carries the meaning of interpersonal relationship. As an internal norm of self, experience guides individual behaviors and completes social communication. Therefore, it is an inevitable phenomenon of social development to produce a variety of different moral standards and values based on different civilizations, different people's experiences, accumulation and inheritance modes and degrees. Therefore, in heller's moral philosophy, the goal of his moral philosophy is how to make multicultural society coordinate with each other in the multi-moral standards, and conduct mutually beneficial exchanges, rather than exploring a universal morality.

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Assignment代写：Marx's original idea

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- Marx's original idea，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了马克思的初心。马克思的初心是他从事革命批判事业的最初动机，也是马克思主义的出发点和价值追求。马克思的初心孕育于启蒙精神、文学和哲学等思想起源，饱含人文关怀、批判精神、仁爱之心和理性思维。马克思在批判现实的基础上确立了实现无产阶级解放的初心，这塑造了马克思主义科学性、革命性、实践性和发展性的鲜明特征。

In the academic circle, the definition of the origin time of Marx's thought is generally from middle school to doctoral graduation. Some scholars have regarded the ideological achievements of this period as text groups to conduct overall research and explore the influential factors of the origin of Marx's thought. The main influencing factors of the origin of Marx's thought include religion, enlightenment spirit, literature and philosophy, from which he cultivated humanistic care, critical spirit, benevolence and rational thinking, from which his initial intention also gradually developed, and his ideological development after going to the society confirmed his initial intention.

Trier, where Marx was born, is an ancient city with a strong religious atmosphere. The religious spirit is still an important part of the spiritual temperament of the citizens, and the religious life is inseparable from daily life. Marx was deeply influenced by traditional western religious culture, and religious spirit was an important part of his ideological origin. Later, many people regarded Marx as a radical "anti-religion fighter", which was actually a one-sided understanding of Marx's critical theory of religion. Marx's parents were open-minded and converted from Judaism to protestantism. "at that time, abandoning Judaism was not only an act of religious liberation, but also a social liberation movement. Religious life is an important part of Marx's family life. Religion is the initial bridge between Marx and the spiritual world and plays a crucial role in his ideological development. Marx's middle school courses include a lot of religious content. In his composition on religious issues, he affirmed the relationship between believers and Christ, comparing believers to branches and Christ to vines. Believers are dependent on Christ, otherwise they will not survive and achieve their goals. Marx also considered the status and role of religion from the perspective of history, and believed that it was natural and necessary under certain historical background and conditions for religion to lift human beings out of the state of ignorance and barbarism, let them get rid of their inner restlessness and shape their noble moral character. At that time, Marx's views on religion were deeply influenced by the enlightenment. He did not regard god as the master of human beings, but he affirmed the significance of religion to the spiritual world and historical development of human beings, and highly agreed with the humanistic care of religion.

Later, the object of Marx's religious criticism was not only religion itself, but also the popular critical thoughts of religion in Germany at that time. Although the religious criticism in the German intellectual circle reveals the illusory appearance of religion, it does not touch the reality. Marx sharply pointed out that the secular basis and thoughts of produce abuses, think that the fundamental cause of religion is the reality of suffering, his criticism of the society resulting from ideological criticism to practical criticism "criticism of the kingdom of heaven into criticism of the earth, into the French critique of religion, the theological critique into a critique of political." Marx's criticism of religion is not a simple and brutal denial, he never advocated the elimination of religion by coercive means, nor denied the value and care of religion to the spiritual world. Marx was fully imbued with the humanistic care of western religious spirit, and his worry about the suffering fate of ordinary people prompted him to explore the realistic way of human liberation.

Marx's thought originated and grew in the spirit of enlightenment. Anthony giddens is very representative. In the 1970s, he said, "Marx's works span three centuries." The reason is that Marx's works were rooted in the great changes brought by the French revolution in the late 18th century, while marxism was born in the 19th century and profoundly influenced the historical process of the 20th century. Marx inherited the criticism of the enlightenment and revealed that feudal autocracy was the root of backwardness and conservatism in Germany at that time. During his college years, he criticized the autocratic rule of the German feudal aristocracy and the national bad habits caused by it in the form of poems and plays, and pointed out that the two were mutually causative, and the criticism of authoritarianism became an important content of his political criticism throughout his life.

Marx was deeply influenced by the rational spirit of enlightenment, but he later faced the social reality and deeply studied the history of the French revolution, and had serious doubts about the consequences of the enlightenment. From then on, he stood at the forefront of his thoughts with a keen and brave attitude and launched a sharp criticism of the capitalist system. It is true that the bourgeois revolution led by the enlightenment spirit has made great historical progress, but only a few property-owners have been liberated, and the working people have gained only superficial personal freedom, but they have not got rid of the miserable fate of being exploited and oppressed. Marx's criticism of the society pointed out the fundamental defects of the capitalist society, from the ideological criticism to the criticism of power and capital, and from the perspective of human survival and value, gave a voice to the proletariat and pointed out the realistic way for its liberation. Marx inherited the critical spirit essence of the bourgeois enlightenment and realized the theoretical innovation, thoroughly criticized the capitalist society and pointed out the historical inevitability of the communist society surpassing the capitalist society, and promoted the ideological enlightenment of the vast majority of working people.

Emotion is an indispensable factor of human thought and personality. Almost all versions of Marx's biography will specially mention that he is a man with warm emotions. His rich emotions are benefited from his extensive reading of European literary classics since childhood, and literature is Marx's constant hobby in his life. Marx loved poetry, and the creation of poetry once became a way for him to express his depressed feelings, as well as a way for him to understand and grasp the world. The poems are full of Marx's sincere heart and precious feelings, permeating his love for the masses.

In the literary works of the ideological origin period, Marx expressed his yearning for his family and lovers, expressed his frustration of feeling unsatisfied and expressed his perception of "love". He sang highly of the power of love, believing that love can overcome all difficulties and evil and bring salvation to people's hearts, despite the difficulties of love, people should be born to love bravely. Marx's "love" transcends personal feelings and sublimates "little love" into "big love". He thinks hard about the contradictions of human nature and the fate of people, lamenting that people often suffer from obstacles to love each other because they cannot control their own destiny in real life, making the spiritual freedom impossible to realize. Marx's compassion for the masses was not only because of his poor material life, but also because of his emotional contradictions and tragedies. His benevolence became the most fundamental emotional motivation for him to criticize and transform the society.

Marx's deep thinking about freedom made social reality gradually occupy his intellectual territory. He realized the limitations of grasping the world in a perceptual way and decided to turn to rational thinking: "writing poetry can and should only be a incidental thing, because I should study law and desire to specialize in philosophy first." Marx had to Germany I indulge in the theory of speculative atmosphere made sarcastic and made it clear that I don't like Hegel's weird style, but after he decided to move to philosophy, from start to finish reading of Hegel and its most disciple of writing, and "want to avoid is increasingly close contact of the modern world philosophy". However, the purpose of Marx's turning to philosophical research is not to devote himself to the field of speculation, but to answer his doubts about man's freedom. The philosophical thinking of rational speculation is a necessary way of thinking to answer doubts, which directly leads to the possibility of his creating a new philosophy to transform the world rather than explain it.

Marx's philosophical thoughts in the period of the origin of Marx's thoughts are mainly reflected in his philosophical notes and doctoral theses. It is no doubt that he determined the school of self-consciousness as the research object of his doctoral thesis under the influence of Powell et al., but the fundamental reason is that the school's attention to the freedom of individual mind corresponds to his inner distress at that time. The autocratic rule of the Prussian government severely oppressed the individual spirit. According to the viewpoint of the self-consciousness school, individuals should get rid of the bad external influences and advocate beautiful things to achieve inner freedom, which was highly reasonable in Marx's eyes at that time. The doctoral thesis represents the highest level of Marx's thought, including a relatively complete philosophical system, through which the philosophical connotation of self-consciousness runs. At that time, Marx was still a Hegelian on the whole, and his papers were full of Hegelian dialectic thoughts. However, he insisted on atheism, believing that philosophy must stop endless speculation and become an ideological weapon to transform the world, which also became the fundamental reason for his later differences with young hegelians. Philosophical research is the key stage of Marx's thoughts, in his PhD thesis discusses several is of great significance to the world outlook formation of problems and implements the rational way of thinking, this let him in front of numerous and complicated social reality to shoes of nature, found that hinder the individual freedom to achieve the fundamental problem and seek realistic solution.

"In the mind of the young Marx there was already a spark of thought, and the full development of this thought was his immortal contribution to manhood." "The spark of thought" can be regarded as Marx's original intention, that is to achieve the liberation of the proletariat. Marx took the initiative to give up the superior life and spent a life of wandering, but he always defended the original idea, with theoretical criticism and revolutionary practice for the liberation of the proletariat made an "immortal contribution".

Marx's original intention was to innovate on the basis of critical theory and social reality. First of all, Marx was thoroughly proletarian. Many thinkers before him had spoken out for the freedom of the poor, but they either ended up serving the ruling class or placing their hopes for solutions in abstract morality. Marx used this scientific theory of marxism to reveal the real situation and the source of suffering of the proletariat, and pointed out the practical way for the liberation of the working people. Marxism really promoted the ideological enlightenment of the working people. Secondly, the proletarian liberation is not abstract and general but concrete and realistic. The bourgeois revolution overthrew the feudal autocracy and established the capitalist mode of production. The society was increasingly divided into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, which gained the right to develop freely while the proletariat could only endure the exploitation of capital and power. The discovery of historical materialism and surplus value thoroughly reveals the development law of capitalist society and the secret of capitalist exploitation of workers. The misery of the proletariat is rooted in the capitalist mode of production. Only by breaking the capitalist private ownership and building a public society in which everyone can have equal and equal access to the means of production can the material foundation of proletariat liberation be established. Material liberation is not the whole content of liberation, but the fundamental condition. It is the all-round development of economy, politics, culture and society, and it is the free and comprehensive development of human being to get rid of the shackles of nature, society and oneself, and to re-establish the value and significance of human existence. Third, the combination of human liberation and social liberation. Individual liberation is the fundamental issue that Marx focuses on from beginning to end. He CARES about the concrete reality rather than the abstract whole. The fundamental way to realize the liberation of man is not in the field of thought, and the thorough improvement of man's fate must be realized by building a fair and just social order. There are contradictions between individuals and the state and society, and the key to realize the liberation of man is whether and how personal interests can be elevated to public interests. In a capitalist society, the state represents the interests of a minority of the bourgeoisie, and it is impossible to achieve the consistency of individual interests and public interests. The fundamental way to achieve individual liberation must be to build a communist society: "where the free development of everyone is the condition for the free development of all." Finally, Marx pointed out the reality and possibility of the proletarian revolution and personally led the international communist movement. Marx scientifically analyzed the negative factors and the rational factors of socialism contained in the capitalist society, and pointed out that the proletariat took on the historical mission of overthrowing the capitalist system and realizing human liberation. As a mentor of proletarian revolution, Marx actively participated in the international workers' movement and maintained contact with the leaders of the workers' movement all over the world, and founded the proletarian political party and organization. Since its birth, marxism has developed and matured in the workers' revolutionary movement, gradually forming an interactive mechanism between theoretical innovation and practical development, which reflects the essential characteristics of marxism as a new philosophy to transform the world.

Thought is the creation of man, and man's character and pursuit determine his ideological characteristics. Marx's initial intention to pursue the emancipation of the proletariat has created the distinctive characteristics of marxism, which is scientific, revolutionary, practical, popular and developmental.

The initial idea of realizing the liberation of the proletariat inspired Marx to ask about the real source of human suffering and explore the truth of human history development. Marx's two great discoveries in his life were historical materialism and the theory of surplus value, which turned communism from fantasy to science. Historical materialism overcomes the defects of idealism and old materialism, fundamentally changes the perspective of human understanding of social history, and reveals the development law and trend of capitalist society and the whole human history. The theory of surplus value reveals the secret of capitalist exploitation of workers, pushes forward the irreconcilability of the fundamental contradiction between private ownership of means of production and socialization of production, and points out the historical trend that capitalism will inevitably perish and socialism will inevitably win. Marxism is a orderly scientific theory system, the international communist movement from spontaneous to conscious without the guidance of scientific theory, marxism to guide the working class as a political force boarded the stage of history to realize own change of fate, the historical process of socialist revolution, in turn, confirms the scientific nature of marxism.

Marx's life career is to criticize the theory of reality and society ruthlessly, "the so-called ruthlessness, that is to say, this criticism is not afraid of their own conclusions, nor afraid of conflict with the existing forces. Marx never blindly worshiped the theory of others, and he had a strong critical spirit from the thought origin stage, which is the inherent theoretical quality of marxism. Marx is the forerunner of the critique of capitalist modernity. In the theoretical perspective of marxism, the external manifestation of capitalist crisis is economic crisis, while the internal essence is cultural crisis. The inherent contradiction of capitalist society fundamentally restricts the development of human beings, so the liberation of human beings cannot be realized in capitalist society. Marx's original intention determines that his criticism of capitalism has a strong humanistic dimension, and his criticism of capital, power and other "things" points to the criticism of "people", and the goal of communism is to reshape the survival value and spiritual dimension of people. The theoretical criticism and practical criticism of marxism are unified. The immediate manifestation of practical criticism is the proletarian revolution. Although violent revolution is a means to promote social progress under certain historical conditions, it is the product of class society and cannot fully interpret the revolutionary nature of marxism. Under the new historical conditions, the socialist revolution is not only a political activity by means of violence, but also dare to break through all the darkness of reality, create a better life and gradually realize the lofty ideal of communism.

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Essay写作最常遇到问题

经常会听到留学生们抱怨Essay写作让人非常头疼，那么大家在写作Essay的时候都遇到了哪些问题？是否在写好Essay后才发现文章的主题比较模糊，亦或是Essay的引用出错等等。其实这些问题都是有解决办法的，下面就给大家讲解一下。

主旨不明确

有时候我们写Essay突然灵感来临，写东西就像脱缰野马，从东跑到西，从南跑到北，回到原地又转两个大圈圈。或者也有相反的例子：因为没有太多灵感，想要东扯西扯一些内容凑字数。有内容、思路开阔固然是好事，但写给别人看的文章最重要的一点就是要有一个核心的主题。没有主题的Essay是没有灵魂的。如果大家不希望自己付出的时间被浪费掉，在开始写Essay之前一定要确定自己的文章有明确的主题/主旨，也就是确定自己到底想要为大家介绍什么或是说明一个什么道理。

引用错误

在国外，引用文献是非常重要的。不恰当的引用会直接影响最终成绩，忽略引用而导致论文重合率高的学术文章不仅会挂科甚至会被开除学籍。其次，引用具有代表性和可靠性的文献也非常关键。国外几乎每一篇Essay都有严格要求至少引用课外的sources。这里的source也就是你在写文章的时候所收集到的资料。假设你准备写一篇关于“留学生来美国后的文化差异”的文章，那么你收集的资料可以是关于数据调查方面的，比如百分之多少的人表明自己明显感觉有文化差异。你也可以收集一些在相关领域学术研究的文章，比如一些文章介绍文化差异的形成原因和过程，这些内容都可以帮助你写文章的时候分析中国人来美国后的文化差异形成过程。总之，你搜集的资料和文献一定要具有代表性、是可以帮助你论证你的观点的！

写作结构

国内的小伙伴们在写Essay的时候请不要再把文章分为三大自然段！“开头、中间、结尾”这样的Essay格式更适合列提纲而不是写文章。在美国，学术论文通常都是2000字起步，所以如果文章只有三个自然段，老师在改文章的时候一定会读崩溃的！合理的分段和布局非常重要。如果怕前后联系不紧密，还可以加上小标题，这样不仅方便你理清自己的写作思路，还更方便老师阅读你的文章逻辑。

表达不清晰逻辑不顺畅

其实写好一篇Essay最重要的不是词汇而是清晰的表达和顺畅的逻辑。强大的词汇量固然是加分项，但如果句子的逻辑不清晰，再高端的词汇量也凸显不出写作功底。表达方面，这里我要强调尤其重要的是分析逻辑和批判性思维的能力。分析逻辑就是分析你所阅读到的文献。假设我们要写一篇关于“该不该合法持枪”的文章，首先我们要把读到的文章里作者的观点复述清楚并且分析作者观点背后的逻辑。

例子：

1.表明作者立场：作者A支持合法持枪因为作者A认为持枪是唯一有效保护自己的方法。

2.论证（举例说明、解释作者的论点）Eg：假设我走在路上被人用枪威胁，或许我可以使用其他工具保护自己，但哪怕是我身上有刀也没有办法有效保护自己，因为刀需要很近距离才可以刺伤别人而枪可以在远距离外起到很强的保护作用

这里我所举的例子就是一个“分析逻辑”的能力。批判性思维呢就是反过来问自己是否支持作者A的观点并且给出原因和证据支持自己的观点。整体过程还是一样的道理，切记一定要论证自己的观点不能只是表达观点！

审题太宽泛

最后一点很容易被忽略的就是审题问题，很多小伙伴在开始写文章以后就忘记最开始的题目要求了，于是写着写着很容易忽略老师留下来一些细节问题。在这里给大家的建议就是在列提纲的时候加入这一环节，让自己在写文章的时候时刻提醒自己不要忘记回答老师留下的问题。并且我强烈推荐大家在开始写作之前认真审题，有些论文是要结合上课内容的，所以一定要把思路理清楚，结合好需要融入的所有内容再开始写作。如果完成了一大半的文章之后再开始加入新的元素，文章的主旨就会被淡化很多。

总结

对于留学生而言，Essay写作真的是生活中和学业上必不可少的一部分。哪怕是理科生也离不开report。所以写好文章真的很重要！有用的写作技巧不仅能帮你提高GPA，还能帮你锻炼清晰的逻辑思维和表达能力。

以上就是关于Essay写作常见的一些问题，如果同学们也有这些问题的话，那么现在就知道该怎么去解决了。

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Paper代写：Social philosophy of searle

本篇paper代写- Social philosophy of searle讨论了塞尔的社会哲学思想。塞尔在《建造社会世界》一书中提出的主要观点是：人类所有制度事实，乃至此意义上的所有人类文明，在其最初始的存在与保持中是由简单的语言操作而建造起来的。可以更准确地说，这种操作是地位功能的宣告。这种语言操作以递归方式反复运用构成了社会文明的复杂结构。塞尔认为，人们通过宣告而创造或改变社会世界中的事态。言语行为理论中的宣告式话语是塞尔社会建构论的基本要素，而地位功能是整个社会文明结构的核心。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

From the perspective of social constructivism, social reality is not objective reality like natural fact, but constructed through the playful operation of language. As one of the most influential philosophers of our time, searle has made great achievements in philosophy of language and philosophy of mind. At the same time, he is also concerned about the real problems of society. In 1995, according to his early speech act theory, searle put forward his unique social constructivism in his book the construction of social reality, which aroused fierce debate in the academic circle. After more than 10 years of development, in 2010, searle published his 18th book, "building the social world: the structure of human civilization," based on his previous experience, which systematically improved his earlier social philosophy. The new book argues more clearly for the fundamental role of language in creating social reality. This social constructivism, which extends from speech ACTS, offers a novel perspective on the structure of social civilization, attracting the attention of scholars in different fields, such as jurists and sociologists. This paper makes a systematic analysis of his social philosophy by combining the two works of serr. It is compared with the collectivist social reality theory of Finnish philosopher tomira to reveal the problems existing in searle's social philosophy. This paper first introduces the main ideas put forward by searle in his new book, and analyzes his answers to the problems in his previous views. Then make a critical study of searle's social constructivism. Thirdly, starting from collectivism, propositional logic is introduced to put forward another explanation of institutional facts. Finally, from the dialectical relationship between language, man and society, it points out some important qualities that searle's social philosophy lacks.

The main point put forward by searle in his book "building the social world" is: first, all the institutional facts of human beings, and even all human civilization in this sense, were constructed by simple operation of language in their initial existence and maintenance. Second, it is more accurate to say that this operation is a declaration of the status function. Third, this kind of language manipulation is used recursively and repeatedly to form the complex structure of social civilization. According to searle, people create or change events in the social world through announcements, such as declaring war or declaring a company. The declaratory discourse in the theory of speech ACTS is the basic element of the social constructivism of searle, and the status function is the core of the whole social civilization structure. The creation of status functions is achieved in the following ways:

We create institutional fact Y through the existence of the declaratory status function Y in scenario C.

To create an institution is to create a status function. As a kind of speech act, the declaration of status function has two kinds of appropriate directions: the mind pointing to the world and the world pointing to the mind. Some people create the status function Y through declaration. This declarative creation not only describes the existence of Y in the collective, but also when it is declared, the members collectively accept the existence of Y in a particular way among them. It seems a little mysterious how language creates social reality in this way, but there seems to be no reason other than the characteristics of language itself. According to the general description of the status function by searle, the status function can exist and perform certain functions, because some objects or entities are endowed with specific functions by collective acceptance or recognition in the community, so that they can function and be implemented.

In his new book, searle argues that the demonstration of the process of constructing social reality solves three of the problems that he criticized in his 1995 book, the construction of social reality. In his terminology, the three problems are: exceptional cases; Independent of Y; Institutional facts that do not require collective recognition. Discuss them in turn:

The special case is how to create institutional facts without prior institutional norms. In 1995, searle proposed the construction rule of social reality :X counts as Y in scenario C, just as Obama counts as President of the United States in the American political system. This rule presupposes the existence of pre-existing institutional norms. Although there is no prior system or set of norms, a primitive tribe can suddenly accept a person as their leader, conferring special rights and duties, sayre says in the new book. How can institutional facts be created in the absence of pre-existing institutional norms? In his new book, searle answers this particular case. He says that the status function of collective acceptance and implementation of the declaration itself creates the moral right necessary for institutional fact. That is to say, the discourse itself can independently create the institutional fact, which does not necessarily require the existence of prior institutions.

Independent Y. Independent Y means whether the institutional fact can exist independently without material carrier. In his new book, searle claims that status functions can exist independently, without the need for X. In this way, his construction rule "X counts as Y in scenario C" cannot be applied to all cases. In his view, the company is a good example, he used the California telegraph company to illustrate the formation of the company. He said that anyone who meets certain conditions can set up a company, and a company can be established and exist permanently as long as it meets the regulations stipulated in the company law. Here searle presents a set of double declarations:

If any X in C satisfies some condition P, we can create some entity by declaring status function Y. The actual company is:

Make entity Y exist by declaring that it has a function F in C.

The noun "corporation" carries the name and status functions of the entity. Since a limited liability company can have no physical carrier, Mr Searle thinks it is a fictitious entity.

Institutional facts that do not require collective recognition. Do institutional facts need collective acceptance and recognition? Searle put forward three basic concepts: collective intentionality, function conferring, and status function declaration supported by enough abundant language. The 1995 book creates social reality according to the construction rule "X counts as Y in C", and the new book declares according to discourse:

By declaring existential status function Y in scenario C, the relationship R between Y and specific community S is thus created. Thus, through SRY, S has the right to act A.

In searle's early view, the creation of institutional facts does not necessarily require irreducible collective intentionality. The new book notes the necessity of collective acceptance for the creation of institutional facts. Collective acceptance implies collective intentionality. Although searle's collective acceptance or recognition starts from individualism, he has considered that the institutional fact has certain collective factors, which is an improvement to his early theory.

Next, it is necessary to examine searle's social philosophy. In a community, members fundamentally need to solve a problem of cooperation. Declaration means that community members collectively accept Y as a status function. For example, if you look at the gold standard, not the untradable currency, some pieces of paper are used as money. It can be said that what is regarded as legal tender is relative to social custom. Unless people maintain the existence of a certain state through actions other than verbal behaviors, pure speech ACTS cannot create collective artifacts, which is presupposed that the world of speech ACTS points to the proper direction of mind. If people treat checks or notes as money under the gold standard rather than on the basis of uncashable money, then this ultimately needs to be manifested in action and sustained by collective acceptance. Therefore, if a declaration cannot generate or presuppose appropriate commitments or non-verbal actions of the members of the collective, it cannot perform functions other than language, cannot be used to create institutional facts among the subjects, and at most can create some conceptual features of concepts or institutional facts.

Although searle also talks about the collective recognition and acceptance in the creation of status functions, it cannot be inferred that it necessarily contains corresponding non-verbal actions. Therefore, searle's declaratory argumentation of institutional facts underestimates the nonverbal actions behind declaratory discourse. Moreover, he does not clearly define what is the institutional fact and the "collective" part it contains and presupposes in the process of creation. People can create ideas about institutions, such as gold COINS rather than plastic sheets, but they can't make real physical events or events happen just by saying so.

In searle's argument, collective acceptance is the recognition of the declared event, which is individualistic and individual aggregation. Mainly because he believes that collective intentionality based on individualism is sufficient for social reality. This is of course consistent with his famous theory of speech act put forward earlier. Speech act theory is a theory of individualism, and it is also the basis and tool of social constructivism. However, "creating Y by declaring the existence of Y" can only be explained by combining it with collective actors, because it at least potentially contains the collective reason of "doing something together". As a community event, it has gone beyond the general theory of speech act. Therefore, individualism is not sufficient for the institutional fact of collective acceptance.

According to searle, many institutional facts are fictitious entities, such as companies, which can be constructed only through linguistic declarations. However, this does not work in practice. A company has certain responsibilities and obligations, such as paying off debts, and it must have the physical existence required by the corresponding collective behavior. Fictional actors do not have such causal ability in the necessary related responsibilities. Making an entity exist by declaring it to have a function does not necessarily make a corporation exist. A company does not actually exist until people assume relevant positions, functions in the corporate sense are performed, cause-and-effect networks in society operate, and institutional rights relationships are established between different positions. If the domain covered by the above functions is assumed to be D, the domain is Rn >, Ri (I = 1,... , n) institutional rights and other relationships. As a relational system, Co (t) = , Rnt>, at every point in time t, the various functions and responsibilities of the company are properly maintained. It all boils down to this:

Co = < D, R1... Rn, >, where D is the people domain, and Ri is the power relationship between them.

In this way, Co counts as a real company. Searle argued that there could be independent Y as an institutional fact, which was really just the surface form of some particular institutional fact. The above deepened form of institutional facts not only conforms to searle's construction rule "X counts as Y", but also conforms to the historical reality in its interpretation of institutional facts.

The special case, the independent Y, and the fact that institutions do not require collective recognition are three of the major problems faced by searle's early social constructivism, and the answers to these questions in the new book change markedly. However, searle's discussion of social reality fails to pay attention to the unintended consequences of people's intentional activities, such as economic recession and social stratification. These collective unconscious social facts are exactly what social scientists are concerned about. According to searle's theory, society is actually constructed by people's collective acceptance and acceptance of intentionality, that is to say, it is the result of people's rationality. However, as a complex system, there are a lot of phenomena that appear rational but are actually irrational. For example, in the financial market, different organizations and individuals rationally choose to maximize their interests within the commonly accepted rules, but often lead to unexpected economic crises. In turn, these unexpected social realities become the background of people's activities and further form new social realities. This shows that social reality itself has inherent autonomy and logic, not completely based on the deduction of individual intentionality. According to searle, the existence of a status function is to declare the corresponding rights and obligations, and the status function can generate rights, or even the essence of the status function is deontic relations. This view is illuminating, but controversial. Many societies have certain status functions, but no obvious moral rights, such as the calendar system. In a word, searle's theory of social construction is a little narrow, and the interpretation of some institutional facts remains at the representational level of linguistic signs. Although it describes the main features of most institutional facts, it still does not accord with the general dictionary and people's common understanding of social institutions.

In searle's individualistic description of institutional facts based on speech ACTS, he attaches great importance to the obvious empirical facts. Intentionality can only be the feature of individual mind, and the action and intention content are completely individual. Therefore, the principle of moral rights of institutional facts is also derived from the individual. From the perspective of collectivity, the social attribute of institutional fact cannot be reduced to the individual attribute, and the social uniqueness of the whole concept should be maintained. According to tomira's collectivist exposition of institutional facts, it can be said that searle's explanation of most institutional facts is sufficient but unnecessary.

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Essay代写：The relationship between the judicial system and morality

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The relationship between the judicial system and morality，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了司法制度和道德之间的关系。司法，要立足于通过职业道德的自治性内控功能，展示公正、廉洁的外在形象，不断增强公众对司法程序和裁判结果的信任和信心。片面倚赖道德教化不能解决人性的不确定性问题。因此，应当健全职业道德建设的相关实施机制。

China is a typical emerging country with the rule of law. For a long time, regarding the opportunities and challenges in the process of rule of law, "Chinese legal circle is used to blaming all the problems on the system, so that they can find targets for criticism". "In the process of comprehensively advancing the rule of law, there is a view that good governance will naturally be achieved by learning from good institutions in China and abroad, both ancient and modern. It's a one-sided view." This kind of one-sided view once filled the academic circle, the perspective of the study of the rule of law is relatively single. Experience shows that the system always has both positive and negative functions. After the introduction of many advanced systems into China, when their positive functions are not fully demonstrated, their negative functions are always exposed quickly, which makes people realize that the system cannot be simply transplanted or grafted. The origin of institutionalists is mainly from the mainstream tradition of philosophy and politics since the bourgeois revolution in the west. Accordingly, academics tend to believe that institutions are decisive for modernization, economic growth and individual social choices. At the same time, the system is widely blamed for corruption, corruption, fraud and so on. However, as Douglas c. north, the Nobel prize-winning economist and founder of the theory of institutional change, has pointed out, rational choice theory cannot effectively explain human behaviour that is equally common in life and is not calculated by self-interest; What's more, people's motivation to change the system usually comes from people's morality, conscience, belief and concept of justice. From the perspective of human nature, all behaviors in society come down to human nature, that is, individual nature, purpose and preference, which is the most stable and common thing in human life and generally has no individual differences. Therefore, it is in line with the original significance of human nature to overcome the limitation of rational choice theory and pay attention to moral changes, to try to investigate the rule of law in China and the construction of judicial professional ethics from the perspective of the rule of law and the dialectical relationship between system and morality, and to seek the breakthrough of judicial reform.

The peculiarity of man in the whole of nature is that he has not only the animal side, but also the divine side. "Good" embodies the human side of divine and public welfare, is not limited to general material to produce the required value, and many more points to the spiritual value level, involving individual and ego, individual and others, individual and society present value relationship, i.e. the human social determines the survival and development of each person, in fact, based on the premise of the survival and development of others, human needs, mutual cooperation and altruism. "Evil" is also human nature, reflecting the animalistic and self-interested side, which is determined by the limitation of the resources that human beings rely on to survive and develop; Human society is far from being developed to fully suppress and attune to the instincts of the human animal hierarchy. Self-interest is the unchangeable nature of human beings, and what can be changed is only the way and limit of people's pursuit. Engels believed that "the fact that people come from the animal kingdom has determined that people can never completely get rid of the animality, so the problem is always to get rid of more or less". Then, human nature and other animal nature, there are great differences: on the one hand, people's animal nature or self-interest needs are always an increment, constantly generated and changed, while other animals' desires or needs are a basic constant; On the other hand, as Darwin said, "some authors maintain that of all the differences between man and the animals below him, morality, that is, conscience, is the most important; I completely agree with that judgment." For example, according to Kant, the founder of classical German philosophy, man is the only existence applicable to the moral law that has the ability of reason and freedom. Otherwise, human society has long been in the "law of the jungle" non-cooperation to give degree of confrontation in the annihilation. In order to obtain a safer and more comfortable living environment and improve the quality of life, each member of human society should restrain his or her self-interest instinct and act in accordance with socially recognized morality and system.

The original sin genes of human nature, such as selfishness and greed, are mixed with the altruistic genes of human nature, such as compassion and tolerance. Morality is based on the good in human nature and generally represents the positive value orientation of the society. It is the judgment standard of the behavior characteristics such as good and evil, justice and injustice, justice and favoritism. At the same time, morality is a kind of emotion and heart between compassion and faith, more from conscience and self-consciousness. Western theoretical circles always pay attention to the relationship between human nature and morality. The "impartial spectator" thought experiment, for example, perfectly parsed by Adam Smith, the founder of classical British political economy, emphasised a code of conduct that would constrain self-interest with just compassion and generosity, and summon a greater public spirit. Adam Smith's theoretical construction is similar to the thinking mode of Chinese traditional philosophy, such as self-reflection, careful consideration of empathy and emphasizing "do not do to others what you do not want others to do to you". For example, the representative of modern liberalism, j. s. mill, made a wonderful statement: "suppose that the majority of each class is mainly governed by its class interests in their differences, and that in each class there is a minority whose considerations are subordinate to reason, justice, and the welfare of the whole; ... One man of faith and ninety-nine men of mere interest are equal social forces." In traditional Chinese Confucian culture, the pursuit of "good" is not inferior at all. "stop at the supreme good" is regarded as the highest state of the way of university and the highest moral pursuit of a man. It can be seen that the basic moral concepts of fairness and justice are not unfamiliar to human beings, although they are interpreted in different ways. No matter in China or the west, morality can endow social life with ideal and lofty, and make people's existence and development have ethical significance and good value.

In the human history, the system is later than the moral production, is a certain social and historical conditions of the product. The establishment of the system is based on the evil in human nature, which is a kind of artificial design and choice. It refers to all kinds of rules with punishment measures that have a normative impact on people's behavior, which must be strongly guaranteed by a certain authority. In this sense, the distinction between institution and morality mainly lies in power and non-power. Weighing the two, the key is how to combine the heteronomy of the system with the self-discipline of morality, so as to promote the good end of human nature and restrain the excesses of evil. The common logical starting point of system and morality is human nature in the universal sense. Just because human nature is the common foundation of institutions and morals, any method of belittling, ignoring or even stripping away human nature will be futile. Therefore, morality and system have the same root and the same origin, infiltrate each other in content and support each other in function. Morality and system should be a relationship of mutual integration and action. This relationship has three implications: first, the inherent vulnerability of morality needs to be strengthened and supplemented by external institutions; Secondly, the limitation of external system needs the support and source of internal morality. Third, under the premise of paying equal attention to both, we should always maintain the priority of some morals to the foundation of the system. A healthy society should be one in which morality constantly criticizes and promotes the system improvement, and morality itself can also be sublimated in the criticism. "Ethics and morality penetrate into all aspects of social life, not only softening the rigid sense of system construction, but also providing people with a lofty pursuit of value, so that people's real life has an upward goal and a driving force for good. To this end, fuller, a famous contemporary American jurist, started from his theory of new natural law and insisted on the internal connection between law and morality.

In modern society, law is the advanced form of system and the unique cultural phenomenon that human beings have entered a certain stage. Law is the explicit part of this cultural phenomenon, while legal belief is its implicit part, which is the metaphysical core of law. The most important, as Rousseau said, "is this law engraved not on marble, not on brass tables, but on the hearts of citizens; It formed the true constitution of the country; It's gaining new strength every day. In terms of the historical origin of western rule of law, the Roman law Renaissance in the early 12th century, the Renaissance and enlightenment movement after it, etc., run through a main line from beginning to end, which is to subtly internalize the rule of law into the attitude and emotion of the public, making the rule of law a cause that all the public participate in. It is in this spiritual atmosphere that law and human nature reach the maximum integration and unity. In the process of the rule of law in western society, the market and religion play a vital role in the formation of the wings; Among them, religion not only provides moral guidance for people to do "good", but also ACTS as punishment deterrent for people to do "evil". Such strong and distinct sacred appeal and rejection of sin tend to make believers form stable, serious and serious moral feelings. On the other hand, this natural connection between religion and law gives law a moral element. However, in China, as the dominant traditional culture, the founder of Confucianism, Confucius, at the very beginning, went straight beyond the origin of the universe into the empirical world, discussing the ways of Kings and ministers and human relations, lacking the metaphysical speculative color. Different from it, western culture has profound metaphysical tradition and ultimate concern complex, and religion is the highest form of this ultimate concern. For western society, the priority of morality is also rooted in the tradition of natural law, that is, natural law is understood as the collection of ideas about reason, freedom and justice in the order of the universe, which serves as the basis of positive law. Natural law is the internal measure to test positive law, which has a value and vitality beyond time and space, race and nation.

It is generally accepted in academic circles that no matter in China or the west, the primary rule to maintain the society in the first place should be the moral code. German sociologists put forward the concept of "etiquette society" when studying the social trend of thought in the enlightenment period, believing that "etiquette society" is a spontaneous, morally based, non-economic society, while its counterpart is "legal society". China is a typical society of etiquette and custom. Although the rule of law has been established as a dominant social discourse, it is still a long way from being internalized into the mode of social governance and the normal life of Chinese people. The motivation for focusing on the burgeoning rule of law in contemporary China is complex -- utilitarian and religious, mixed with blind obedience and restlessness, and accompanied by a relative lack of moral and emotional dimensions. The spiritual evolution caused by reform and opening up is no less than the change of material and institutional levels. It highlights the rationalism and scientific spirit, arouses people's subjective consciousness, and brings about problems such as the disappearance of humanistic spirit. Needless to say, in an era of material abundance, to judge whether a society is advanced or backward, civilized or barbarous is not a matter of "G.D.P. Similarly, judging the degree of a society's rule of law depends not only on whether the system is advanced and complete, but also on the social moral situation and the resultant force between the system and morality. It is said that the rule of law is supported by the reason of the majority of the public, "the rule of law is the rule of 'man', its maintenance of social order and embodied humanistic spirit is only the bottom line level, and there is a distance between the moral level of 'gentleman' required by the harmonious society and the ultimate concern for man". In view of this, the moral appeal of the system is always one of the core issues of the rule of law; Law should embody the basic spirit of morality. Without a moral foundation, people cannot identify with and consciously abide by law.

The generation of morality and law is rooted in human nature and the need of social production, distribution and exchange. Therefore, as two different normative systems, morality and law have the same foundation. Furthermore, if human society maintains a certain order, it needs some basic values related to that order. Justice is the core of this basic idea, which constitutes the overlap of moral bottom line and legal upper limit. Justice itself is a publicity of human kindness, the unification of rights and obligations based on interests and transactions, dealing with the public interest and general rules in the society of strangers; In other words, only by taking humanistic orientation as the value guide of system design, can we establish an orderly social communication structure, reduce the uncertainty, interpersonal friction and procedural loss in communication behavior, and make the interests of all parties meet properly according to reasonable and fair institutional arrangements. In short, any society needs a minimum moral consensus, a basic moral consensus that can be logically generalized; The modern moral system is centered on justice, or justice is this kind of universal and consensual bottom line morality, which promotes the establishment and operation of good social order. Historical experience shows that the reform and the rise of some emerging social forces will lead to the redistribution of social benefits, and the imperfect system in the social transition period may lead to the unfair and disordered distribution of benefits. Since the late 1970s, under the impact of the market economy's highly materialized and commoditized values, some profit-oriented behaviors have emerged. "We went from having a market economy to a market society." Some systems and policies do not give proper consideration to public responsibility, professional ethics and business ethics when they are involved in the dilemma of efficiency and equity, distribution and justice, which results in negative externalities. Especially in the area of people's livelihood, the public's psychological tolerance is constantly challenged, reflecting the unbalanced relationship between institutions and morality. Accordingly, to value diversity and appeared "Matthew effect" of the contemporary Chinese society, the need to establish the direct point to "good" "justice" of the rule of law targets and moral foundation, bridge the relationship between the imbalance, in order to reach to the liberation and development of the productive forces, eliminate exploitation and eliminate polarization and achieve common prosperity of the socialist essence, the greatest degree to show the advanced nature and superiority of the socialist system.

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