英文论文定题和文献阅读

不知道留学生们在写作英文论文之前，都是怎么定题和搞定文献阅读的呢？如果同学们要想拿高分的话，那么确定题目的时候还得花点时间琢磨一下，然后把相关的文献阅读完，下面就跟大家讲一下。

->第一步：看最原始的literature，看这个大topic提出者的paper

确定一个研究大方向，比如topic是venture capital and innovation。Google scholar里面搜索，什么都不用选，自动出来cite的最多的一篇，如下。

后面直接跟[PDF]字样的，不需要什么网站账号，直接点这个链接就到了正文。

保存文章的时候，直接把文件名保存成reference要求的格式。比如这一篇就是这样的。

Kortum, S., & Lerner, J. (2000). Assessing the Contribution of Venture Capital to Innovation. The RAND Journal of Economics, 31(4), 674-692.

有时候有特殊字符，就删删减减的就好了。

内容上，这种最初提出topic的文章写的都非常的清楚，你能明白这个topic是怎么出生的，作者是为什么把venture capital和innovation想到了一起。有了一个最基础的了解，你就可以自己带着思考往下走了。

->第二步：看被引用多的几个作者的所有paper

搜索recent的，被引用多的，尤其是某一个作者的一连串的几篇，可以一起重点看了，这样就形成了一个系统的概念。向这位作者学习，如何确定的topic，如何引用的文献，如何处理data选择methodology，等等。

关于看人家总结的literature review部分，应该是本着向人家学习的态度着重看。学习人家如何分类归类的，如何进行理论论证，如何引用前人的research 结果填充论据，如何发现research gap，等等。

->第三步：大量阅读，做一个干的海绵，使劲儿吸水

开始阅读大量文献。凡是这里面引用的文献，最好都读一边，这样三四十篇下来，对这一块就有了比较全面的了解。自己总结归纳所有看过的文献，把里面涉及到的论点分类，这样就总结了所有的论点和论据。画思维导图也好，列1234也好，只要把整个大picture能清晰的展现眼前印在脑子里就行，把这些每一个小点都练成线，把线再织成网，之后只要别人一提跟这个topic相关的，你就能立马找到这个点在你头脑中的大网的位置。

->第四步：定具体topic

搜索最近两三年的论文，认真学习最近的论文研究到什么程度了，把握一下研究方向，总结research gap，这样才能定题。自己确定个大致的范围，或者几个possible topics，然后找导师讨论，把所有总结的东西都再总结，present给导师。这样讨论比较有效，而且可以牵着导师走，让导师跟着你的思路往下想，这样结合他们的理论常识和research经验，应该能帮助你定一个比较具体的topic。

->第五步：着重读跟具体topic相关的literature，归纳总结，形成自己论文的论证线路

看了那么多literature，走到现在，应该是着重看这个具体topic的literature了。细看每一篇，着重看他们的methodology，以及他们的literature review，你会发现很多引用的论文是重复的，出现在不同的论文中，这样就找到了进一步着重看的literature。所有的literature看完，归纳总结，列思维大框架，然后往里填血肉。

说到总结，该如何总结：

(1)找共性，都谈到的什么，都怎么谈的，在你的literature review也可以谈;

(2)找不同，为什么这个人往左了那个人往右了，好好想想为什么，也可以放在你的literature review加以discuss;

(3)找漏洞，有没有共有的漏洞，有没有这片的漏洞能用另一篇补上的，如果能，这就是一个逻辑上的顺承关系，那么在你的literature review里面这两篇文献就可以有个先后了;而如果没有一篇能补上漏洞的，那么这一块要么是不能做(data或者是methodology不支持)，要么是还没来得及做，要么是别的特殊原因，那么恭喜你，你可以加进你现有的topic或者下一篇论文的topic有着落了;

(4)都用了什么data，从什么数据库来的，总结好，结合自己学校的情况，看看有什么available的数据库，如果高质量的数据库你们学校都没有，那么只能跟导师讨论解决方案了，这一块虽然不放在literature review里，但是每一篇你看的时候随手一记就可以省了你之后写data部分的时间和精力;

(5)列出你的思维框架，然后把这些论文对应放进去，每个点后面最起码有三篇论文了，这样再下手写就容易很多了。

以上就是关于英文论文定题和文献阅读的步骤，同学们在准备英文论文的时候，最好都能做好这些步骤，这样才能写好英文论文。

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Paper代写：Egypt's constitutional crisis

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- Egypt's constitutional crisis，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了埃及的宪政危机。2011年至2014年，埃及经历了最为复杂的宪政危机。军方发布宪法宣言和修正条款，致力于把持制宪权，遂引发宪法危机；而穆尔西的盲目修宪扩权志在谋求教派利益，稳固统治根基，加剧了宪法危机；在军方庇护下的曼苏尔过渡政府的修宪旨在保障军方与世俗派的统治地位，但危机的根源犹存。埃及的宪政危机说明，公民权利与国家权力之间，以及不同国家权力部门之间的矛盾和冲突。

From February 11, 2011 to 2014, Egypt experienced its most complex constitutional crisis in three years. Review Egypt's constitutional crisis roughly divided into three stages: the first stage is January 25, 2011 solstice June 2012. During this period, power was held by the SCAF, with constitutional declarations, referendums on constitutional amendments, parliamentary elections and presidential elections. The second stage is June 24, 2012 solstice July 3, 2013. In the interim, the brotherhood, led by Mr. Morsi, issued a new constitutional declaration to expand the President's powers and held a referendum on a new draft constitution. The third stage is July 3, 2013 solstice June 8, 2014 SCAF came to power again, ousted morsi, reelected military chief abdel fattah al-sisi after the presidential election, and amended the 2012 constitution, whether the 2014 constitution will move towards democracy is questionable.

Shortly after mubarak's overthrow, the SCAF took over Egypt by dissolving parliament and suspending the 1971 constitution. Announced that it would soon hand power to the people by amending the constitution and holding parliamentary and presidential elections.

A few days later, it appointed a constitutional council to amend some of the old articles of the constitution. The amendments proposed by the committee set out the provisions relating to presidential candidates. It also deals with deputies to the people's congress, how judicial oversight is conducted, the conditions under which the President appoints a vice-president within a set time and declares a state of emergency. A committee of 100 will be formed to draft the constitution, which will be put to a referendum. The amendment mainly amended articles 75, 76, 77, 88, 93, 139, 148, 179 and 189 of the 1971 constitution. The most prominent amendment was article 77, which reduced the term of office of the President from 6 years to 4 years. It stipulated that the President could only serve one consecutive term. The change is important because most presidents in the Middle East serve terms of 20 to 30 years. Secondly, the amendment of article 88 formulates the content of the whole process of judicial supervision and election. Although a majority opposed the amendment, the referendum was 77 per cent in favour, thanks to the support of the brotherhood and the SCAF. The SCAF then announced that parliamentary elections would be held.

The new amendment does not change the second provision of the old constitution, that islamic law is the source of legislation. After the amendment was passed, the SCAF enacted a number of laws. For example, law no. 73/1956 provides for procedures for parliamentary election of candidates. The parliamentary election system was adjusted to better represent minorities and women. It also lowered the voting age. The army and the brotherhood formed an alliance after the SCAF took over. It is not hard to understand why the new amendment passed with such a high vote. In turn, the brotherhood not only accepted the military's proposed transition line, but also mobilized its members to vote for the SCAF constitutional amendment. At first, the alliance seemed to benefit both sides. The military can put itself in a leading position for change with the backing of the brotherhood, which will be able to use its organisational power in the coming elections. However, in order to highlight the military's role, article 56 of the constitutional declaration gives the supreme military council great powers over legislation, budgeting, promulgating and repealing laws. This shows that not only is the military in charge during the transition, but the new President will remain in charge. This transfer of power, which was not in the constitutional framework, sowed the seeds of the crisis in the subsequent power struggle between the Egyptian President and the military.

However, after the 2011-12 parliamentary elections, the brotherhood's relationship with the army became complicated. The brotherhood realizes that despite their electoral victory, they will not be able to influence the reform process and their power will be severely limited. The SCAF not only allocates the DE facto veto in the constitutional process, but also actively tries to predetermine its outcome. Most offensive was deputy prime minister ali al-semi, who unveiled the so-called "selmi principle", which gives the army greater autonomy than in the previous constitution. The initiative was strongly opposed not only by the brotherhood but also by other political forces. In the end, those principles were withdrawn, but military leaders stressed through the document their complete independence from political leaders, heralding continued conflict between the military and the brotherhood.

Mr Morsi won the 2012 presidential election anyway, because the SCAF's constitution gives it the final say. So the first thing morsi did when he came to power was to invalidate the SCAF's constitutional declaration and hold a referendum on a new draft constitution with the aim of expanding the powers of the President.

Since coming to power, the brotherhood has become more politically assertive. Mr. Morsi took the oath of office in the absence of the dissolution of parliament. Mr. Morsi has since issued several presidential decrees aimed at promoting stability and preventing unelected institutions from overstepping their powers. While the President's actions are controversial, they are by no means aimed at undermining the democratic transition. On August 8, militants killed 16 soldiers in the sinai peninsula. In a second move four days later, the President invalidated the SCAF's constitutional declaration and reshuffled the army's leadership. The security incident in rafah has sparked a bitter rift between the President and the military, whose leaders have called for a state of emergency in the sinai peninsula, a move Mr. Morsi described as excessive. Mr. Morsi seized the opportunity to weaken the military and consolidate his presidential authority at a time of heightened tensions. The developments suggest that the brotherhood has used public anger at the military leadership to stage a "coup" to increase its power.

On August 12th he announced the retirement of many senior military officials, including the defence minister, tantawi, to be replaced by sisi. Mr. Morsi also withdrew the executive power the SCAF used to dissolve the elected parliament in June. While ultimately not enough to counter the resilient SCAF, Mr. Morsi's efforts to bring the military to civilian rule have won the support of many. Instead, Mr. Morsi's government is increasingly embroiled in a power struggle with different parts of the former President. These struggles were especially evident in the constitutional process, so Mr. Morsi's reshuffle of military personnel was less a unilateral imposition of presidential will than a concerted redistribution of leadership.

The clashes culminated in Mr. Morsi's decree on Nov. 22, which put him above the law and sought to shield the constitutional drafting process from judicial interference. The President's absolute authority has been blamed for undermining the democratic process. Against a backdrop of escalating opposition, Mr. Morsi fears the Supreme Court will dissolve the constituent assembly again. Accordingly, pre-emptive action was taken to ensure the timely completion of the constitution. A constitutional referendum was held in the third week of December, and the new constitution was ratified and implemented despite low turnout. Anti-morsi protesters filled tahrir square chanting "dictator morsi" and "presidential tyranny."

Against this background, Egypt's already fragile situation has further deteriorated. In February 2013, nearly 80 people died in riots in port said. Mr. Sisi warned that continued public chaos could destabilize the country, a warning that some interpreted as a military coup against the islamist government. In addition, the opposition has established cross-party groups including the national salvation front and tamarod. Took to the streets on the anniversary of the President's inauguration, demanding that he step down. The military gave Mr. Morsi an ultimatum, but he refused to resign. The opposition succeeded in overthrowing the President in large part because its goals dovetailed with the interests of the army's top brass. The SCAF is concerned with maintaining its position, free from the influence of civilian rule.

On July 3, 2013, SCAF returned to power. Morsi was ousted and leading members of the brotherhood were detained and jailed. The constitution was suspended and the SCAF appointed the head of the Supreme Court, mansour, as interim President, who will remain in office until the next President is elected. The next day it set up a transitional government and a committee to revise the 2012 constitution. It is clear that the military is once again regaining control of constitutional power through self-empowerment. The new draft constitution was revised by the "constitutional review committee" on December 1, 2013, and passed by 98.1 percent in a referendum on January 15 and 16, 2014.

The military intervention was a prelude to a return to dictatorship. Since then, the security forces have cracked down on every sign of resistance, especially among members of the brotherhood. Tens of thousands of people have been jailed for political reasons, weakening the brotherhood's structure and threatening islamist and non-islamist protesters. It ended with the mass illegal killing of peaceful protesters in August 2013. Coup supporters saw the takeover by SCAF as the fulfillment of the will of the people. By this account, the army was forced to respond to the morsi protests. However, the ouster of a democratically elected government through a military coup is not only considered a legitimate exercise of the "will of the people", but also asserts that the military's intervention is a legitimate response to the demonstrations. In the new constitutional process, the military is trying to ensure autonomy for its institutions. A new constitution drafted by mansour's leadership council was approved in a referendum in January 2014. Two weeks later, the military approved sisi as a presidential candidate. The 2014 constitution gives the military more decisive constitutional powers over "national security" issues, budget issues and military justice.

Throughout Egypt's constitutional crisis: the military issued a constitutional declaration and amendment articles, trying to hold the constitutional power, then triggered the constitutional crisis; However, morsi's blind constitutional amendment and power expansion aimed at seeking sectarian interests, which consolidated the ruling foundation and aggravated the constitutional crisis. The changes to the constitution of mansour's military-backed transitional government are intended to ensure military and secular rule, but the roots of the crisis remain. The constitutional crisis in Egypt also shows that the contradictions and conflicts between civil rights and state power, as well as between different departments of state power, may pose a major threat to the existing constitutional system if not solved in a timely and effective manner, and thus evolve into a serious crisis.

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Dissertation Fail后该怎么办

想必留学生们都清楚Dissertation的写作难度，毕竟每一年都有不少留学生的Dissertation挂了。Dissertation能顺利通过那肯定是非常高兴的事情，但万一Dissertation Fail了呢？还有方法补救吗？下面就给大家讲一下Dissertation Fail后该怎么写。

Dissertation Fail有四种解决方案：

①申诉

②再次检查论文

③读透参考文献

④加强与导师辅导员的沟通

关于申诉：

在英国，dissertation是否可以通过并不完全是由文章的质量所决定的，还有很多其他可能存在的因素。所以当你确定自己的dissertation没有质量上的问题，但最终却没有通过的时候，请大家先去找教授进行申诉，并解释清楚情况。

再此检查论文：

除了上边提到的“不可抗力因素”之外，dissertation未能通过一定也是有其他原因存在的，此时我们就需要找出原因，对症下药了。

还有一点就是proofreading。虽说这一点很基础，但是也很重要。通过proofreading可以避免一些比较基础的语法错误。除此之外还有reference的格式问题，要知道reference的分数占比也是不小的，但总的来说还是很简单，只要大家按照学校要求来，基本上就没有任何问题了。

每个学校对论文格式的要求可能会有所不同，所以同学们一定要严格按照学校给的PDF文档进行修改。

读透参考文献：

在写作过程中找好参考文献，并理解通透，这样一来可以避免在论文写作过程中出现东拼西凑的现象。如果觉得实在困难，那也一定要找出与自己研究内容相近的参考文献，然后仿照别人的来写。

另外，关于数据处理。Spss, Stata, Eviews这一类软件用起来就很简单。同学们可以花点时间根据教程学习处理数据，这样一来简单很多。

如果methodology部分大家采用的是问卷调查的方式，那么一定要尽量采用混合图进行对比的方式，不要只是简单的把几个饼图柱状图放进去。不然的话，关于methodology部分本来就很简单，如果你的数据分析也做的过于简单粗暴，那么就很难通过了。

加强与导师的沟通：

其实加强与导师的沟通，应该是写dissertation每个阶段都应该进行的事。在英国，每位留学生应该都有对应的Supervisor，如果你的论文不幸没通过，那么去请教Supervisor，他会就论文本身给出一些合理的建议。同学们在针对Supervisor的建议进行按部就班的修改即可。

以上就是给大家的Dissertation Fail的四个建议。Dissertation写作没通过也不要紧张，大家找出问题的关键才是最重要的，记住，一定要抓紧时间处理，不然耽误时间就更麻烦了。

想要了解更多英国论文写作技巧或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有英国代写、essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写。亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多关于英国代写以及英国留学资讯，我们将为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有英国代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Paper代写：Constitutional review

本篇paper代写- Constitutional review讨论了合宪性审查制度。合宪性审查是宪法实施中非常重要的手段，也是最重要的宪法保障制度，它指的是宪法和法律所授权的机关根据法定的程序对公权力行为是否符合宪法进行审核并做出相应处置的活动或者制度。在实施过程中进行宪法的合宪推定，是对宪法的一种消极的审查和监督，而违宪审查是进行违宪推定的一种积极审查方式。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

Many countries have different expressions about "constitutional review", such as "constitutional review", "unconstitutional review", "constitutional supervision" and "constitutional implementation". There is some overlap between these concepts. In the report of the 19th CPC national congress in 2017, the concept of "constitutional review" was clearly adopted. Therefore, the comparison and accurate expression of relevant concepts are very important.

"Constitutionality review" is a very important means and the most important constitutional guarantee system in the implementation of the constitution. "Constitutionality review" refers to the activities or systems authorized by the constitution and the law to review and deal with the constitutionality of ACTS of public power according to legal procedures. It is a negative review and supervision of the constitution to make constitutional presumption in the process of implementation. "Constitutional review" is an active way of "constitutional presumption". Some scholars believe that "constitutional review" not only involves the supervision of the implementation of the constitution in the judicial process, but also includes the legislative process. And "unconstitutional review" is mainly aimed at judicial issues. In fact, the systems referred to in these two statements are systems in which the competent authorities review the possible violation of the constitution to evaluate whether the laws, regulations or ACTS are unconstitutional. Because the report of the 19th national congress of the communist party of China USES the expression "constitutionality review", we also mainly use this concept for discussion.

"The life of the constitution lies in its implementation, and its authority in its implementation. To uphold the authority of the constitution is to uphold the authority of the general will of the party and the people. Safeguarding the dignity of the constitution means defending the dignity of the common will of the party and the people. Safeguarding the implementation of the constitution means ensuring the realization of the fundamental interests of the people. "This is the content on the application of the constitution proposed by the second plenary session of the ninth central committee. Therefore, the implementation of the constitution must be accompanied by constitutional supervision, to fundamentally establish the constitutional authority, constitutional review is just such a guarantee. On the one hand, it can enhance the ruling ability of the party, strengthen the supervision of the constitution, improve the rule of law, and maintain the authority of the constitution as the fundamental law. On the other hand, it can further improve the relief channels, better protect the basic rights of citizens and protect human rights.

Constitutional review can actively promote the leadership of the party. Xi jinping comrades repeatedly pointed out that "the rule of law is ruling by constitution first, in accordance with the law governing the key is ruling by constitution", visible development is consistent with the party's leadership and rule of law, the constitution as a national law, with the highest legal effect, the possible violation of the constitution, to promptly investigate and supervise by means of the rule of law, and the rule of law priority, is to establish the authority of the constitution and ruling by constitution. The authority of monitoring the implementation of the constitution is the supreme organ of state power, namely, the National People's Congress and the standing committee of the National People's Congress, the state power and the leadership of the party has always been a supplement each other, promote each other, can make our party with the rule of law thinking, rather than political thinking to solve the problem of constitution, so the review of constitutionality is helpful to carry out and implement the party's leadership, ensure the constitutional supervision under the leadership of the party. At the same time, under the principle of "the party and state organs must abide by the constitution and laws", the constitutionality review can greatly improve the party's ability to govern in accordance with the constitution and the law, so as to protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens to a greater extent, improve the government's credibility and win the support of the people.

Constitutionality review belongs to the way of constitutional supervision. A country ruled by law usually safeguards the authority of the constitution through the effective supervision of the constitution, and restricts the public power to ensure the operation of the rule of law. Constitution plays a guiding role in national political life, is running the general constitution, constitutional review is to examine whether other laws and regulations conflicts with the constitution, here not only refers to the content of the constitution, but also the spirit of the constitution and principle, under the supervision mechanism, can effectively maintain the authority of the constitution. All along, the public awareness of the constitution only stays in the "distance", arguing that it is on high, not to touch, in People's Daily life, the legal issues and legal disputes, are addressed by each department and the relevant relief method, barely met their use of the constitution, including for years on the implementation of the constitution in 1982, the state organs start the constitution supervision. To make the constitution win respect and enjoy authority, the key lies in punishing the unconstitutional ACTS and making the subject bear corresponding responsibilities. If there is no constitutional review system for local legislation, violations of the constitution will not be prosecuted, and the supreme authority of the constitution will gradually disappear under the invasion of local legislation. For a long time, the constitution has shown little sanction power in the implementation process, which makes it difficult for the constitution to reflect its supreme legal authority. The constitutional review system can correct and cancel unconstitutional ACTS to some extent, maintain the authority of the constitution and ensure the implementation of the constitution, which is conducive to the realization of "governing the country in accordance with the constitution" and "governing the country in accordance with the law".

This function is also the most important function of constitutional review." No remedy means no right. "without remedy, legal rights become moral rights, and positive law becomes a dead letter. The contents of the constitution mainly include provisions on the basic system of the state and protection of the basic rights of citizens. Therefore, the constitutional review system plays an important role in the protection of citizens' basic rights. All countries in the world have different types of constitutionality review system, whose purpose is to protect the basic rights of citizens. Along with the social development, the era of progress, infringement means and way more and more complicated, many new means of infringement is lawmakers failed to foresee when making relevant laws and regulations, and, of course, this is the legal lag the disadvantages caused by the constitutionality review, however, can be in a certain extent, offers a variety of relief way to guarantee citizens' basic rights. The core value of the constitution is to guarantee the basic rights of citizens. Lenin once said, "the constitution is a piece of paper full of people's rights." the orderly and lawful operation of public power in state organs is ultimately to ensure the rights of citizens. If a state law or legal document does not conform to the content or spirit of the constitution, it must involve the infringement of the legitimate rights and interests of citizens. The purpose of constitutionality review is to make laws and regulations follow the content, spirit and principles of the constitution, so as to ensure that the formulated laws and regulations can truly safeguard the rights and interests of the people and protect their legitimate rights and interests.

Since the promulgation of the current constitution, especially since the 21st century, the supervision system of the implementation of the constitution has also been developed. However, we have to admit that the institutional structure of this system in China is not perfect, and in reality, it has not fully played its function within the entire institutional framework, and there are some deficiencies.

Constitutional review system is bound to involve the subject of review, our country has no special constitutional review system related laws and regulations, but at present, there are two organs of authority, one is the National People's Congress; The first is clearly defined by the standing committee of the National People's Congress in articles 62 and 67 of the constitution. So according to the actual situation of our country, the constitutionality review is mainly carried out by the NPC standing committee. In addition, there are auxiliary institutions. In order to promote the spirit of the constitution, enhance the awareness of the constitution, uphold the authority of the constitution, strengthen the implementation and supervision of the constitution, and advance the review of its constitutionality, the NPC law committee was renamed the NPC constitution and law committee. So far, our country has made it clear that the constitutionality review organ is implemented by the constitution and law committee of the National People's Congress. The constitutionality review of the constitution can draw lessons from this provision. If the legitimate rights and interests of the parties are infringed, the parties may, when filing the relevant lawsuit, make an application for reviewing the constitutionality of the relevant laws and regulations. This can not only prevent citizens or organizations from abusing this right, start the constitutional review at will, but also urge the state organs and public relations personnel to be extremely careful when formulating and using laws and regulations, fulfill the obligation of review.

The sentence "no law can be done without authorization" is aimed at public power organs that must have explicit authorization by laws and regulations when exercising their powers. The constitution is also like this. At present, China's constitution, legislation law and other relevant laws do not clearly stipulate the scope of constitutional review. The review of constitutionality needs specific staff. If the scope is too wide, it may involve the accumulation of review work, insufficient staff and excessive pressure. If the scope of constitutionality review is too narrow, it can not effectively control unconstitutional ACTS and play the role of constitutional supervision. The author believes that the scope of constitutional review should include normative documents such as laws and regulations, ACTS of state organs and their staff, and ACTS of specific social groups. Because the accurate definition of the constitutional review scope is related to the smooth development of the constitutional review work, and affects whether the future constitution can really supervise. First of all, the constitutionality review of laws and regulations is aimed at making laws and regulations formulated by the NPC, its standing committee and other lawmaking bodies conform to the constitution. As far as the administrative procedure law is concerned, although it stipulates that the legality of abstract administrative ACTS can be subject to review, it also explicitly excludes laws, regulations and rules. It can be seen that a large number of reviews are limited to low-ranking normative documents, and such supervision is not comprehensive enough. If the review of constitutionality is not extended to the review of laws and regulations, the constitutional authority will be damaged to some extent. Strict review scope is conducive to building a complete legal system and promoting the implementation of the constitution. Secondly, the review of the constitutionality of the ACTS of state organs and their staff can resolve the disputes over the authority of state organs and clarify whether the ACTS of office are in line with the constitution. The power of the state organ will directly affect the protection of the basic rights of citizens, and its clarity is very necessary in the process of rule of law. The behavior of the staff of the state organ is included in the category of constitutional review, which can restrain their behavior and make them more cautious when exercising their functions and powers.

At the same time of the progress of constitutionality review, the procedure of constitutionality review must be made clear. The operation mechanism of state power has corresponding procedures, and a good procedure system can effectively guarantee the operation of power and the realization of civil rights. It should be detailed from the aspects of the initiation of the constitutional review, the development of the review work, the generation of the review results, and the treatment of the review consequences, combined with the entity investigation and time limitation, to grasp the rules of the operation of each link. The review process can also refer to the relevant provisions and principles of the administrative procedure law, such as the principle of not stopping the implementation. Before making an unconstitutional ruling, the execution procedure should not be suspended for a judgment that has been executed, which not only reflects the recognition of the judicial judgment and respect for independent judgment by constitutional review, but also effectively prevents the parties from seeking excuses to delay or not cooperate with the execution. Constitutionality review organ is currently by the constitution and the law committee of the NPC standing committee, so the author thinks that, at the results of the review of constitutionality disposal shall be submitted to the National People's Congress by the constitution and the law committee decided that the session of the National People's Congress may exercise their decision by the standing committee of the National People's Congress, constitutionality for some major issues, is determined by the National People's Congress.

Constitutional review carries the common expectation of constitutional law researchers. All along, constitutional experts have been calling for the establishment of constitutional supervision system. Although the current constitutional review mechanism still has some problems, it opens a new constitution to safeguard the authority of the constitution and govern the country according to the constitution. Faced with these problems, we will continue to summarize experience in practice, constantly improve the constitutional review mechanism, and build a complete constitutional supervision system and socialist legal system.

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Essay代写：Kant's pure natural science

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Kant's pure natural science，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了康德的纯粹自然科学。康德的纯粹自然科学不是通常意义上的理论自然科学，而是具有形而上特性的命题。这些命题因为其先天综合性为本义上的自然科学带来了无可置疑的确定性，它们是作为本义上的自然科学的牛顿物理学的形而上学基础。尽管纯粹自然科学中的两类先天综合判断不是重合的，但康德关于它们的先天综合性的证明是可辩护的。康德的纯粹自然科学是他的自然科学理论的核心概念，先天综合判断则是理解这一概念的钥匙。

Kant's "pure natural science" is the core concept of his natural science theory, and a priori synthetic judgment is the key to understand this concept. "Pure science" is not Newton established in the mathematical principles of natural philosophy of the experience in physics, but in the form of innate comprehensive judgment about the nature of metaphysics, it has to do with Kant's metaphysics opposite namely ethics about freedom, on the structure by the general nature of metaphysics and form natural metaphysics of two parts. The three principles of "the analogy of experience" as a synthetic judgment of a priori belong to the former, while Kant's three laws of mechanics as a synthetic judgment of a priori belong to the latter. Therefore, luo zhong's view that "pure natural science" is merely "transcendental philosophy" is worth discussing, and Kant's proof of the latter is completely defensible. This paper first analyzes the meaning of Kant's term "pure natural science" and determines its reference, then finds out the synthetic a priori judgments, and finally refutes the misreading of Kant's synthetic a priori arguments on these judgments by researchers in the english-speaking world.

In the prologue of the initial metaphysical basis of natural sciences, Kant divided natural science in its original sense into pure natural science and the empirical part of natural science according to whether it contains the priori principle of natural explanation or not. In its original sense, the pure part of natural science, namely, pure natural science, contains the priori principles of natural interpretation, which are the synthetic judgment of priori. The rest of the empirical part does not include these a priori principles, which tend to be acquired synthetic judgments that appeal to the principle of experience. Since these a priori synthetic judgments always carry a sense of necessity for themselves, the pure natural sciences constituted by these a priori synthetic judgments are at the same time the basis for natural sciences in their original sense to obtain their unquestioned certainty.

Pure natural science already exists in reality, and its actuality is the premise on which Kant traces its possibility. In his introduction to the critique of pure reason, Kant expressed his absolute belief in its reality, which we can find in the synthetic apriori judgments as principles of physics. He gave examples of the principle of the conservation of matter in quantity and of the equality of action and reaction in the transmission of motion. Now the question is what is pure science?

Luo zhongzhong, peng zhijun and shu yuanzhao all believe that the concept of pure natural science is not the theoretical natural science usually understood, and the author agrees with their views. Luo zhongzhong believes that Kant's pure natural science is not a theoretical natural science, but a purely non-empirical part of natural science. Based on the principles of purity, universality and argumentation, he divided pure natural science into pure natural science in a narrow sense and pure natural science in a non-strict sense. Peng zhijun and shu yuanzhao agree that pure natural science is not theoretical natural science, and insist that pure natural science is the inherent natural metaphysics. The author believes that as the three said, pure natural science is not theoretical natural science. For Kant said, "all natural sciences by their very nature require a pure part upon which to establish the incontrovertible certainty which reason seeks in it. And as this part is wholly different in principle from those parts which are merely empirical, so far as its method is concerned, it is separated from the rest, and not mixed in at all... And where its capacity begins to require the help of empirical principles, is extremely useful." In addition to this, Kant concluded in his discussion of the place of mathematics in the science of precision that "natural science in its proper sense requires a pure part to be the basis of the empirical part." These two quotations show that there is a great difference in principle between pure natural science and empirical natural science. The former is philosophy, and the latter is empirical science. The former forms the latter together with the empirical part of natural science, and the latter needs the former as its foundation.

Although luo zhongjing and peng zhijun, shu yuanzhao think pure natural science is not theoretical natural science, but they are in pure natural science after all point to what problem produced disagreement. Luo zhongzhong believes that pure natural science is the metaphysics of general nature, while peng zhijun and shu yuanzhao believe that pure natural science not only includes the metaphysics of general nature but also includes the metaphysics of body nature. Before entering into the argument, it is necessary to determine Kant's reference to the metaphysics of nature in general. The initial according to metaphysics of natural science gives us inspiration, Kant there will be divided into natural metaphysics of the prior part and special metaphysics of natural science, the former is different from the latter is that it has nothing to do with the experience of the specific object and concerned about the general nature, the latter, on the other hand, it refers to one kind of the nature of things, so the former and Kant called "general natural metaphysics". In this way, this transcendental part can only be the metaphysics of nature in general, because the metaphysics of nature in general is concerned with the possibility of nature. Kant even named section 36 of the introduction to metaphysics of the future as "how is nature itself possible?" In this section he argues that the possibilities of nature in general are not in nature but in human understanding. It can be seen that the metaphysical principles of nature in general are the legislation of man on nature, which is expressed in the form of propositions as "all synthetic principles of pure understanding". Kant distinguishes them from the special metaphysical natural sciences.

In view of the above is the demonstration of the general nature of Kant's metaphysics is "purely intellectual all comprehensive theory", and his natural form of metaphysics and the whole of his metaphysics in the building planning, the next will be examining plans Kant's metaphysics, under the premise of his metaphysics "pure science" corresponding to the solution of the what part of the problem. Comparatively speaking, I agree with peng zhijun and shu yuanzhao that Kant's "pure natural science" should refer to his metaphysics of nature in general and metaphysics of body nature.

Luo zhong's view of excluding metaphysics of physical nature from pure natural science is incompatible with his own distinction between pure natural science in a narrow sense and pure natural science in a non-strict sense. Kant in the future the introduction to metaphysics of section 15 had the nature of the doctrine of prep is divided into mathematical principle and is not completely pure, pure reasoning, experience does not depend on the source of these three things, because of the second kind is pure principle of sex are the innate comprehensive judgment, they are completely independent of experience, so Kant to establish them as natural science, but there is no clear to the third class as a pure natural science, too. Perhaps because of the fuzziness of this section, Mr. Luo also distinguishes pure natural science in a narrow sense from pure natural science in a non-strict sense, and the distinction is valid. But the third category, which deals exclusively with external sensory objects, should also be classified as pure natural science, or at least as pure natural science in the non-strict sense. Otherwise, professor luo's distinction between pure natural science in the narrow sense and pure natural science in the non-strict sense would be meaningless. Kant of third class example is the "movement" "impenetrability" "inertia", he once said: "the mathematical principles of physicists cannot lack of metaphysics, and in these principles is not a lack of their natural objects, i.e. material congenitally suitable for the principles of the above applies to the external experience, i.e. inertia motion, full of space, such as concept." And initiative according to the scientific nature of metaphysics "is around the basic rules of movement as a material, the second chapter is all substances to fill a space according to the theorem in the third chapter three detailed elaborated the concept of movement inertia can be the meaning of transitivity, visible in the third type of things in this book, which should be considered at least is strict in the sense of pure science.

Kant's metaphysics of body and nature is consistent with his metaphysical assumption of pure rational architecture in the initial basis of metaphysics of natural sciences. In the architecture of pure reason Kant gives a positive account of his whole metaphysical project. He divided philosophy into natural philosophy and moral philosophy according to whether the legislative object of reason is nature or freedom. The systematic knowledge in natural philosophy is natural metaphysics, which can be either a transcendental philosophy or a rational natural philosophy, and the latter can be subdivided into transcendental or internal natural science. Thus, Kant's whole metaphysics consists of "transcendental philosophy, i.e. ontology, rational science of nature: reasonable physics and psychology, reasonable cosmology, and reasonable theology". What part of his whole metaphysical project is his work in the initial metaphysical foundations of the natural sciences? In my opinion, this monograph completes the sound physics in the second part. It is not the metaphysics of nature in general, but the metaphysics of body nature. First, this treatise is not a transcendental philosophy. For transcendental philosophy CARES not whether the concrete objects themselves are given to us, but only the understanding itself. And this treatise has its object, which is the object of the external senses, which is matter. Second, it is not a reasonable cosmology and a reasonable theology. Kant has been demonstrated in the "transcendental dialectic", psychology, cosmology, theology is not a strictly scientific, because they are, respectively, as the soul of unconditional, the universe and god as the object, and will never appear in the may experience unconditional, these objects do not belong to the intellectual concept, and belongs to the concept of rational. The concept of reason involves not the synthetic unity of appearances, but the absolute and unconditional synthetic unity. Therefore, although there is a synthetic a priori judgment in the understanding, there is no synthetic a priori judgment in reason, at least no constructive synthetic a priori judgment. Psychology, cosmology and theology are certainly not sciences. This work is concerned only with the metaphysical basis of the natural sciences, so it is not reasonable cosmology and reasonable theology.

The title of the original metaphysical foundation of the natural sciences tells us that this treatise is engaged in metaphysics, and that it is evidently directed not against what ought to be, but only against all that is, and therefore belongs to nature, not to the metaphysics of freedom. Fourth, the comparison of rational physics with the particular metaphysical physics in which this work is engaged shows that it is the metaphysics of body nature. Before facing the reconstruction of Kant's metaphysics plan tells us that the inner nature of learning objects are either physical nature or mind of nature, the former depend on outer senses, which rely on the senses, and "the physical nature of metaphysics was called physics, but because it should contain only the innate principles of physics, it is called a reasonable physics". Kant made a division of the metaphysics of nature, which makes us know more clearly what is the metaphysics of body and nature in Kant's mind. Kant's principle of this division is whether the metaphysics of nature, which is the transcendental part of nature's metaphysics, studies a particular class of things, and does not specialize in a particular class of things, but merely "discusses the laws which make a notion of nature possible in general". The metaphysics that studies the nature of form is the metaphysics of the nature of form, and the metaphysics that studies the nature of thinking is the metaphysics of nature that can think, and Kant calls the metaphysics of the nature of form the physics of the special metaphysics. Might as well put special metaphysics and physics reasonable physics, they are only in order to form natural as the research object, and they all belong to the natural metaphysics, so they are the same thing, special metaphysics is reasonable in physics, physics is the natural form of metaphysics.

The analysis of the connotation of pure natural science shows that it can be divided into two parts: metaphysics of general nature and metaphysics of body nature. Its significance to natural science in its original sense lies in providing a priori principle, which is always expressed in the form of a priori synthetic judgment. Only a priori synthetic judgment can bring unquestionable certainty to the natural explanation given by natural science in its original meaning. It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that there are two kinds of a priori synthetic judgments in pure natural science, and the question now is to find them.

The first kind of apriori synthetic judgments are the synthetic principles of pure understanding in the metaphysics of nature. Generally speaking, Kant does not put the proof of these three principles in the "supreme principle of all analytical judgments", but in the "supreme principle of all synthetic judgments", so Kant cannot claim the analytical nature of these principles. Specifically, in the proof of entity to be principle, Kant explicitly advocated the principle of congenital comprehensive, because he was against the rationalism philosophers as a proposition analysis to deal with it, he said "such a proof is not never can be arbitrary, namely from the concept, because it involves a priori synthetic proposition". In proving causation principle, Kant also stick to its comprehensive and a priori is true, he had this principle is regarded as a natural rule, "according to this rule, in the general advance in an event of STH. There must be a rule conditions, according to the rules are always necessary to follow" the event, and the principle of causality attributed to, of course, can not rely on the analysis of the concept of and self-evident, suggesting that Kant did indeed this principle as innate comprehensive judgment to prove. As for the principle of synergy, Kant once said, "the coexistence of entities in space can only be known empirically on the premise that they interact with each other. So interaction is also a possible condition for the objects themselves to be objects of experience." It can be seen that Kant argues that the principle of synergy is a condition for us to obtain the experience of the simultaneous coexistence of entities in phenomena. In Kant's mind, this principle is a priori not dependent on experience, and Kant of course insists on its a priori comprehensiveness.

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