Presentation该注意什么

在国外留学，少不了要做Presentation。因为做Presentation是体现学生综合能力最好的方式，所以国外大学的老师经常会让留学生们做Presentation，以此考察大家的综合能力。当然，对于中国留学生来说，做Presentation还是有难度的，毕竟在国外做Presentation跟国内有很大的不同，下面就给大家总结一下Presentation该注意什么。

避免常见错误

幻灯片上一些常见的错误，看似没有什么大的影响，实则也会让你的presentation大打折扣，给听众留下不用心的印象。

1.幻灯片的格式要统一

每张幻灯片的字号、字体、背景颜色都要适合并统一。一般情况下，请使用浅色背景，深色字体。尽量精简幻灯片上的文字，以高像素的图片为主，内容紧凑，并突出关键点信息。另外，在引用文献时要尊重作者，文献的格式要完整，包括作者、年份、题目、杂志，说不定下面的听众就有你引用文献的作者。

2.合理分配presentation的时间

对于有时间要求的presentation来说，过早或推迟结束presentation都不是最槽糕的。这是你的presentation，完全掌控你的时间，做到准点结束才能体现你作为主讲人的高水准。

3.致谢必不可少

致谢（acknowledgment）能够体现你作为一个科研人的修养和品德。如有可能，你要详细到每个被致谢的人为你的研究提供了怎样的帮助。这也说明你真正感恩了别人的帮助，而不是泛泛一提。

问答的礼仪和策略

一般presentation的最后，都有问答环节，用于和听众互动。问答环节大概是presentation最具挑战性的，也是体现主讲人学术水平的时候。

1.这是一个好问题

在回答问题时，先说一句“好问题”，对提问者表示感谢。同时，最好展示“结论”或是“模型”的这张幻灯片，以便大家有更多时间消化主要内容。

2.思考片刻后再答

注意倾听和理解问题，不要急于回答，等人问完之后思考片刻后再答。一方面，可以调动你大脑中的信息储备；另一方面，让人你觉得你是思考过这个问题的，对提问者也是一种尊重。

3.切忌不懂问题就乱答一气

没有听懂提问者的问题，可以再问一遍，这没什么。但千万不要不清楚问题，就漫无目的地瞎扯，让听众误认为你思维不清晰。当然，也不该轻易附和提问者，以免显得你作为主讲人缺乏主见。

主讲人的感染力

所谓感染力，是指能引起别人产生相同思想感情的力量，启迪智慧或激励感情的能力。通俗而言，就是能打动人心，使人从内心深处产生共鸣。很多人在做presentation的时候会怯场，紧张兮兮的，显得很没自信，就失去了感染力，那么你的presentation就很难让听众有带入感。如何带着自信的光环和感染力去完成你的presentation？这需要多方面的准备。

1.了解你presentation的听众

他们主要是什么群体？研究生还是教授？他们的研究方向是什么？可能会提出什么样的问题？虽然这样的问题有些不可预知，但还是要有一定的准备。机会留是给有准备的人的，高分值的presentation也不例外。

2.尝试去模拟一个live

你需要架起投影仪，给自己营造氛围，可以请自己的同学做你的听众，试讲时做到三词标准：清晰、响亮、慢速。

3.我是最优秀的

上台之前深呼吸，不妨给自己一个心理暗示：我是最优秀的，我可以做好这次presentation！报告的时候要面对听众，目光温和，不能看着天花板或投影仪，这都无法让听众受到你的感染。

逻辑清晰

逻辑非常重要！没人会关注你的结果，听众关注的是你给他们讲一个什么样的故事？你的结果怎么回答了你提出的科学问题？你在那里语言僵硬地叙述你的结果，毫无逻辑可言，这是最糟糕的！你的重点是如何把你的故事讲的吸引人，让听众跟着你的思路走？就靠逻辑，这一点是高分值presentation不可或缺的。一个简单的方法就是自问自答，每张幻灯片前可以提出与上张幻灯片咬合的问题。

1.单张幻灯片的内容要有逻辑

每张幻灯片要回答4个问题:你为什么这样做？你是怎么做的？这样做得到了什么结果？这些结果说明了什么？这4个问题层层递进，回答时要语言凝练，不可拖泥带水，啰嗦半天还说不到关键点上。

2.前后幻灯片的内容要有逻辑

若两张幻灯片之间没有联结的地方就失败了，所以上张幻灯片讲完后要为下一张幻灯片埋下伏笔。前后内容紧紧咬着，不能让听众有跳跃感。

3.整体幻灯片的内容要前后呼应

在一次presentation中有结果，当然也会有下一步计划。你的下一步计划要与你研究的结果相呼应；你的科学问题要与你课题的重大意义相呼应。就内容而言，高分值presentation是能捋出一条可以拎起来的主线，而不是像小孩子玩拼图一样。

以上就是关于Presentation需要注意的事情，希望大家都能用通俗易懂的语言，简明扼要地表述信息，这样就没什么问题了。

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更多关于代写的内容，点开主页栏目，即可快速获取代写相关资讯，如果各位有美国作业代写需求，可以咨询24小时客服QQ：800020041，为您详细解答。

Paper代写：Oral-B Pro-Expert Deep Clean Toothpaste

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- Oral-B Pro-Expert Deep Clean Toothpaste，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了欧乐B的牙膏。欧乐B是牙科专家推荐的第一大牙膏品牌，其创立于20世纪50年代，很快就发展成最受欢迎的牙科产品品牌之一。欧乐B品牌的牙膏含有微小颗粒，能有效地溶解斑块，这被认为是世界上最有效的牙膏清洁技术之一。与专业的牙膏相比，深层清洁的牙膏含有五倍小的微珠，使牙齿更容易清洁。

Introduction

Toothpaste is used daily by everyone as a personal hygiene product. The earliest form of toothpaste was found in Ancient Egypt. Addition of fluorides into toothpastes in the 1940s has significantly reduced the chance of dental problems. After centuries of development, toothpaste has taken a stabilized set of ingredients and become one of the necessary product for everyone. Compared to other personal hygiene products, toothpaste seems relatively safe, since it is a product used within the mouth on a daily basis. However, the seemingly safe product still contains negative health and environmental implications. Only by establishing a thorough understanding of a product can a customer fully trust it. Such an understanding is motivated by the need for a responsible member of the society to make sustainable life choices, and is based on extensive research on the product. This report will examine the ingredients and the manufacturing process of a popular toothpaste product to find out what these implications are. Based on the research, it has been found that there are many ingredients in the toothpaste that are hazardous to human health, especially when the dosage is increased.

Basic Information

The name of the product studied is the Oral-B Pro-Expert Deep Clean Toothpaste. It is promoted as the number one recommended toothpaste brand by dental experts (Oral-B). The Oral-B brand was created in the 1950s, and soon developed into one of the most popular brands of dental products. After the acquisition of the brand in 2006, the manufacturer of the toothpaste is now the Procter & Gamble Company located in Germany (Oral-B). The toothpaste contains micro-particles that perform actively to dissolve plaque, which is considered one of the most effective cleaning technologies in the world for toothpastes. Compared to a Pro-Expert Toothpaste, the Deep Clean one features microbeads that are five times smaller, which enables the teeth to be more easily cleaned (Oral-B). Regarding the safety of the product, however, Oral-B suggests that the toothpaste would only be safe and effective when used under directions. This means that there might be danger if one consumes more of the toothpaste than he or she should.

The ingredients in the toothpaste include “Glycerin, Hydrated Silica, Sodium Hexametaphosphate,Propylene Glycol, PEG-6, Aqua, Zinc Lactate, CI 77891, Sodium Lauryl Sulfate, Sodium Gluconate, Aroma, Chondrus Crispus Powder, Trisodium Phosphate, Stannous Fluoride, Sodium Saccharin, Xanthan Gum, Silica and Sodium Fluoride” (Oral-B). The description, origin and functionality of these ingredients will be discussed in future parts of this report. The combination of ingredients is “unique”, according to the Oral-B website. Different ingredients target different dental health problems, including cavities, plaque, gum problems, sensitivity, stains, bad breath, tartar and erosion (Oral-B). In addition to the microbeads, Stannous Fluoride Complex is the other ingredient in the toothpaste that is featured in the product description page. This ingredient forms a “shield” within the mouth of the users, that provide protection from acid erosion for hours.

Health Hazards & Environmental Implications

Aqua, Zinc Lactate, Sodium Gluconate, Xanthan Gum & Silica are ingredients that are obtained from natural sources, which means that they have little negative health and environmental implications.The word “aroma” can refer to many different compounds, for example, peppermint. It is not specified most probably because it is from a natural source. Glycerin is a sticky fluid commonly used mica, industry as dissolving fluid, edulcorant and lubricant. It does not have any detrimental effect on human health when consumed. No stimulation for the skin and the eyes has been observed, either. There are two ways of obtaining Glycerin (Adhikari and Agus 1097). The first way is to produce it from natural oil, while the second is by chemical synthesis from propylene. In the process of chemical synthesis, which is the more stable and efficient way of producing Glycerin, large amounts of waste water are generated. Without proper treatment, the waste water is going to harm the ground water system at the location of the factory. Chondrus Crispus is also known as Irish moss which is a species of red algae growing along parts of the Atlantic coast. the powder of Chondrus Crispus is added to the toothpaste as a thickening agent which stabilizes the product. Since Chondrus Crispus grows abundantly, the use of this ingredient will cause little harm to the environment (Breyer).

Diatomaceous earth was used as the earliest tooth powder used by humans. The main component of diatomaceous earth is Hydrated Silica (Capinera). This compound is a find abrasive material that is effective in removing the plaque on the teeth, while minimizing the damage in the teeth. According to FDA, hydrated silica is considered “Generally Recognized as Safe” for humans. The production of Hydrated Silica has become a relatively green process due to the chemically inert nature of it. Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) is widely applied in the toothpaste industry which helps remove stains on the teeth and prevent the formation of tartar. The potential problems of pollution are not listed by either the US or the Canadian government, which indicates that SHMP is safe to produce under regulations (Dalpasquale et al). Propylene Glycol is used in the toothpaste as wetting agent. The toxin level of Propylene Glycol is even lower than salt, which makes it a safe ingredient as it only accounts for a small fraction in the toothpaste. CI 77891 is one of the many names for titanium dioxide, which is a fine power commonly used in food and cosmetics. In the toothpaste, CI 77891 functions as pigment. Normally CI 77891 wouldn’t pose any threat to the human health or the environment. According to FDA, the pure form of CI 77891 is considered safe with no harmful effects.

Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) is used as a surfucant in toothpaste that separate molecules from each other to allow better absorption. SLS is a cheap ingredient but also effective in making the toothpaste work better through improved product-skin interaction. There are debates about the association between SLS with cancer, but no proof has been found yet (SLSFree). Trisodium Phosphate (TSP) is reported to be hazardous compound that is linked to abdominal burning or reproductive failure. Although FDA doesn’t not list TSP as hazardous under small dosage, customers certainly should be more cautious in using it, especially women and children (Seattle Organic Restaurants). Sodium Saccharin is an artificial sweetener and a cheap flavoring agent in toothpastes (Ryan). A Canadian study has shown the potential link between bladder cancer and Sodium Saccharin. However, this result has yet to be confirmed on a larger scale (Ryan).

PEG is the short for polyethylene glycol, and PEG-6 is one of the polyethylene glycol family members. PEG-6 is commonly used in cosmetic products as surfactants and cleansing agents. According to a report in International Journal of Toxicology, PEG compounds appears to be harmful for people with skin damage. It is thus advised not to be used for customers with damaged skin, as it contains multiple types of toxins including heavy metal and polycyclic aromatic compounds, which can induce cancer after long-term exposure. The ethylene oxide found in PEG will increase the chance of uterine, breast and brain cancers as well as leukemia. The 1,4-dioxane found in PEG-6 is yet another carcinogen that should be minimized. Although the 1,4-dioxane can be removed from cosmetic products at a reasonable cost, manufacturers have shown little interest in doing so. It is unclear whether Oral-B uses the vacuum stripping technology in removing the carcinogen. However, it is likely that it doesn’t, as it is an industry practice of saving cost.

Both Stannous Fluoride and Sodium Fluoride are sources of fluoride ions that reduce cavity. The benefits of Stannous Fluoride include the reduction of bacteria in mouth and tooth sensitivity. Overuse of Stannous Fluoride can cause stains in the teeth. Therefore, a warning should come with the package on the proper amount of toothpaste to be used each time.

Children under the age of 12 is also advised against using toothpaste with Stannous Fluoride in it. Sodium Fluoride has similar benefits as Stannous Fluoride. It also acts to repair enamel and prevent tooth decay. Excessive used of Sodium Fluoride can cause skeletal issues. however, Sodium Fluoride is safe for both adults and children to use (Denial). Besides health implications, Fluoride can also harm the ecosystem through destruction of marine and freshwater fish. Release of large amounts of fluoride into the environment will also cause harm to plants and trees (Clinch).

In addition to the ingredients mentioned above, the highlighted use of microbeads (tiny plastic balls) in the Oral-B toothpaste is posing the biggest environmental concern (Derbyshire). Due to the small size of the microbeads, most of them are able to go through the filters in the sewage and enter into natural water bodies. These tiny plastic balls are then consumed by planktons, which is the entrance of them into the food chain. As a result, hundreds of marine species have been found with microbeads in their stomach, with unknown health risks.

Conclusion

In conclusion, although toothpaste is a seemingly safe product and Oral-B is a world-renowned brand, there are ingredients in the Oral-B Pro-Expert Deep Clean Toothpaste that are at least questionable for the health of the users. Most ingredients, including Aqua, Zinc Lactate, Sodium Gluconate, Xanthan Gum and Silica, are considered safe due to their natural origin and way of manufacture. SLS, TSP and Sodium Saccharin have been debated scientifically for their detrimental effects. Due to the lack of sponsoring and the limitations in conducting experiments, the claims of these ingredients to induce caner have yet to be fully proved. However, such a correlation should not be overlooked while choosing a product. Finally, both Stannous Fluoride and Sodium Fluoride are beneficial for dental health. But the entrance of fluoride can cause disturbances in the ecosystem. The use of plastic microbeads should also be banned, since it is the biggest environmental threat for this product. The detrimental effect on the marine animals and the entire food chain has already been confirmed. As a company responsible for the health of its customers, Oral-B should include clear instructions on the dosage of toothpaste to be used each time to minimize the potential health hazards. In addition, the implications should be listed in a manual of instruction, so that the customers are better informed about what they are using.

Works Cited

Adhikari, Sushil, Sandun D. Fernando, and Agus Haryanto. "Hydrogen Production from Glycerin by Steam Reforming Over Nickel Catalysts." Renewable Energy, vol. 33, no. 5, 2008, pp. 1097-1100.

Black, R.E., et al. "Occurrence of 1,4-dioxane in cosmetic raw materials and finished cosmetic products."J AOAC Int. 2001;84(3):666-670.

Breyer, Melissa. “What's in toothpaste? Toothpaste makers are constantly striving to build a better paste, but what exactly goes into these products that allows for their cavity-fighting, breath-taming, shine-inducing, gum-soothing, white-boosting magic?” Mother Nature Network. March 15, 2012. Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: https://www.mnn.com/health/fitness-well-being/stories/whats-in-toothpaste

Capinera, John. Diatomaceous Earth. 2008.

Clinch, Carole. “Health and environmental concerns regarding the fluoridation of drinking water.” 19 November 2007. Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/pet_221_e_30308.html

Dalpasquale, Giovanna, et al. "Effect of the Addition of Nano-Sized Sodium Hexametaphosphate to Fluoride Toothpastes on Tooth Demineralization: An in Vitro Study." Clinical Oral Investigations, 2017.

Denial. “Stannous Fluoride vs Sodium Fluoride.” 10 June 2017. Dental Whale. Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://www.dentalwhale.com/dental-care/stannous-fluoride-vs-sodium-fluoride/

Derbyshire, David. " Ban the toxic beads now! Tiny plastic beads in everything from shower gel to toothpaste are poisoning oceans and threatening health. It's time for them to be outlawed" Daily Mail (London, England), 2016, pp. 8. Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3757440/Ban-toxic-beads-Tiny-plastic-beads-shower-gel-toothpaste-poisoning-oceans-threatening-health-s-time-outlawed.html

https://weather.com/science/environment/news/microbeads-microplastic-ocean-lake-river-aquatic-habitat-pollution

Oral-B. “About Oral-B.” Accessed on 16 June 16, 2017 from: http://www.oral-b.co.in/about/

Oral-B. “Oral-B Pro-Expert Deep Clean Toothpaste.” Accessed on 16 June 16, 2017 from: https://www.oralb.co.uk/en-gb/products/toothpaste-and-mouthwash/pro-expert-deep-clean-toothpaste

Ryan, David. “Saccharin Safety in Toothpaste.” 10 October 2015. Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://www.livestrong.com/article/79281-saccharin-safety-toothpaste/

Seattle Organic Restaurants. “What is Trisodium Phosphate doing in thousands of consumer products, including kid’s cereals?” Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://www.seattleorganicrestaurants.com/vegan-whole-food/trisodium-phosphate-paint-thinner-in-consumer-products-kids-cereals.php

SLSFree. “Sodium Lauryl Sulfate: Learn the Facts.” Accessed on 16 June 2017 from: http://slsfree.net/

Stolley, P. "A preliminary report of cancer incidence in a group of workers potentially exposed to ethylene oxide." Clinical Epidemiology Unit, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, April 25, 1986.

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51due为留学生提供最好的paper代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多paper代写范文 提供作业代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Essay写作中的过渡和衔接

不管是什么英文论文，都讲究流畅度，Essay更是如此。而Essay写作流畅的关键就在于过渡和衔接。要想让Essay从一个段落或者句子自然地引出下一个，那么短语的使用就非常关键了。下面就给大家讲解一下Essay写作中的过渡和衔接。

过渡段落

过渡段落通常较为简短，往往通过总结前一部分的内容来引出下一部分，从而体现两部分之间的联系。

举个栗子，如果一篇Essay中正在探讨某个营销趋势背后的各种原因，可以在谈完一个原因后使用过渡段落来自然衔接下一段讨论，如：

In the previous section we considered environmental factors behind the observed changes, whereas now we will examine psychological motivations. These are connected insofar as…

过渡段落在long essay写作中非常有用，尤其是当你的论文包含好几个独立章节的时候，可以用来提醒老师之前已经讨论过的内容，以便使他们能够从整体上感受到每个章节是如何逻辑缜密地服务于整个论证过程的。

段落内的过渡

段落内部的过渡也同样不可忽视。虽然写短句能够简明有力地表达你的观点，但是如果句子之间没有逻辑关系或逻辑关系不清晰的话也可能导致你的表述非常混乱。这时，能够帮助捋顺句子之间关系的过渡词和短语就能发挥神力了。

在以下例句中，没有明显的过渡：

Bill and Ben(1952)achieved their results using non-standard language. Other studies have used conventional forms of speech. It is not clear whether the language used effects findings.

这段话本身并不太难理解，但如果放在整篇文章中再多几句句子，读者理解起来可能就不得不多费些心神，需要自己猜测上下文中的句子之间是什么关系。因此，不妨加入一些过渡性的单词或短语来衔接一下：

Bill and Ben(1952)achieved their results using non-standard language, but other studies have used conventional forms of speech. Consequently, it is not clear whether the language used effects findings.

在改写后的段落中，用but来连接前两个句子表示正在引入对比关系，而consequently则清楚地体现出第三句是基于前两句的陈述而得出的结论。这样一来，是不是语义和逻辑关系都更加清晰了呢？

敲黑板时刻到！

最后为大家分享一些常用的过渡词和短语以及它们表示的逻辑关系：

相似性

Likewise, similarly, in the same way…

对照/比较

However, nevertheless, in contrast, by comparison…

递进

Furthermore, moreover, additionally, equally important…

因果

Accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore, thus…

结论/总结

In brief, to summarise, in conclusion, finally, to sum up…

以上就是关于Essay写作中的过渡和衔接分析，同学们可以通过这些方法让Essay增加流畅，最后顺利拿到高分。

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Paper代写：Britain and the United States constitution

本篇paper代写- Britain and the United States constitution讨论了英美宪法。从17世纪中期到18世纪末叶，英美出现资产阶级宪法。17世纪的英国“权利法案”等法律确定了英国立宪君主制的重要内容，成为英国宪法的重要组成部分。1787年美国制定宪法，这是历史上第一部成文宪法，它确立了立法权、行政权和司法权三权分立原则。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

From the middle of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century, bourgeois constitutions appeared in Britain and America. In the 17th century, the British "bill of rights" and other laws defined the important content of the British constitutional monarchy and became an important part of the British constitution.

The constitution was written in 1787. It was the first written constitution in history. It establishes the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

The early bourgeois constitution played a certain progressive role in history. Britain and the United States completed two industrial revolutions, making them the world's leading capitalist industrial powers.

After the 1870s, monopoly capitalism appeared, and after that, the bourgeois constitution began to be reactionary. The bourgeois constitution was eventually replaced by the socialist constitution.

The constitution came into being with the emergence of capitalist society. After the victory of the bourgeois revolution, the bourgeoisie established its dominant position in the form of laws, especially the constitution. It used the constitution and other laws to restrain the supreme power, protect its interests and protect its private property from being infringed, thus promoting the expansion of the reproduction of capitalism.

After the "glorious revolution" in 1688, the British bourgeoisie finally seized the political power, and the bourgeoisie began to use laws to limit the power of the king, and the constitution began to appear.

17th-century English revolution is the landmark of bourgeois revolution, the early time, the influence is big, because at that time the British bourgeoisie is not yet in the true sense of the industrial bourgeoisie, strength is not enough big, so there is no able to destroy the feudal system, so the British bourgeois revolution to the bourgeoisie, the new aristocracy and compromise between the feudal aristocracy. In 1689, the British parliament passed the bill of rights to limit the power of the king, which retained the monarchy and other feudal remnants and established a constitutional monarchy under the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. Later, the British parliament passed the law of succession to the throne and other legal documents, which became an important part of the British constitution. These legal documents consolidated and expanded the rule of the bourgeoisie and were of progressive significance at that time. They promoted the industrial revolution to be carried out in Britain first and made Britain the most powerful industrial country in the world in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Because of the incomplete bourgeois revolution in Britain, there was no written constitution. The British constitution is an unwritten constitution composed of some important laws, practices and precedents passed by the parliament in various periods. Due to the unwritten constitution of the United Kingdom, the political system of the United Kingdom gradually fell behind the United States and other European and American countries after the end of the 18th century, and the superstructure affected the economic foundation. After the middle of the 19th century, the development of capitalism in Britain slowed down, and the second industrial revolution was carried out in virtue first.

In the late 18th century, 13 colonies in British North America fought a war of independence against British colonial rule. On July 4, 1776, the north American continental congress adopted the famous declaration of independence. The declaration first proposed reflected the bourgeois enlightenment is the most radical political principle: "all men are created equal", natural rights, freedom inviolable rights which is permitted by law, the government is set up by protecting human rights, the people have the right to reverse damage to the human rights of the government, the declaration Outlines a variety of crimes, the British colonial rule, solemn united colonies declared independence from Britain. The declaration of independence is an important document in the history of bourgeois revolution in Europe and America. Marx once called it "the first declaration of human rights."

In 1787, the United States wrote the first written constitution in human history. He rules the legislative power, executive power and judicial power exercised by congress, the President and the courts respectively, provisions of the relationship between state and federal government, affirmation of the principle of federal position higher than the state, but there's no rule of the citizen's basic rights and freedom, and retain the southern plantation slavery, admitted that southern slaveholders possession of slaves. The constitution was the result of political compromise between northern capitalists and southern slave owners. Later, in ratifying the constitution, many states proposed constitutional amendments to supplement the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens. After the civil war, the congress of the United States adopted a constitutional amendment before declaring the abolition of slavery, and the black people were liberated to some extent.

The 1787 constitution established the bourgeois rule of more democracy, a fast development of American capitalism, especially after the civil war, the United States soon to carry out the second industrial revolution, have stepped onto the path of electrification, a series of new invention creation greatly promoted the development of production, also face to the life of people has undergone earth-shaking changes. By the end of the 19th century, the United States had become the world's leading capitalist country.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States and Britain gradually transferred from liberal capitalism to monopoly capitalism. Monopoly capitalism's pursuit of profit further sharpened all the inherent contradictions of capitalism. In order to suppress the resistance of the people, plunder the world and divide up the world again, the constitutional amendment and supplement carried out by Britain and America and some constitutional documents adopted reflect the characteristics that the bourgeois democracy is rapidly moving towards reactionary. As Lenin said: "this new economic base, the political superstructure of monopoly capitalism, is to shift from democracy to political reaction. Free competition demands democracy. Monopoly requires political reaction."

From Britain, the United States between the two countries in revolution can be seen on the constitution, the constitution reflects the specific historical conditions of the two countries and class relation of power, although they have different characteristics, but in essence is consistent, that is to reflect the early bourgeois political demands, the establishment of the constitution to consolidate the bourgeoisie in the economic and political dominance. These constitutions established the principle of "the sanctity of private property" as a legal norm and established a bourgeois democratic system suitable for the needs of the country at that time.

But due to the different national conditions and the age and class limitation, Britain and the United States constitution and show the different form, establishment of the regime is different also, in the different historical period, also play in the development of capitalism have different positive role, but with the development of The Times and social progress, Britain and the United States constitution concerning and successively exposed, which in turn hindered the social development.

On the whole, the early bourgeois constitution played a certain progressive role in history, because it promoted the decaying feudal economic foundation and superstructure to die out. Compared with the feudal autocracy, the bourgeois democracy defined in the constitution is a great progress in social history, which promotes the constant development of capitalism. However, what the bourgeois constitution consolidates is the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, and bourgeois democracy is only that enjoyed by the property-owning people.

A best records the history of capitalism is capitalism for formulation, amendment and supplement of the constitution, because the bourgeoisie constitution is the concentrated reflection of bourgeois rule and benefit, developing capitalism inevitable requirement bourgeois constitutional amendments and supplement, modified and supplement of the bourgeois constitutional and promote further development of capitalism, when at a certain stage of the development of capitalism, bourgeois constitutional can no longer maintain the bourgeois rule, the bourgeoisie will establish a dictatorship, bourgeois dictatorship led to world war ii, bourgeois constitutional eventually replaced by the socialist constitution. Only the socialist constitution is the most perfect constitution in human history, the constitution that represents the fundamental interests of the largest number of people, and the constitution that promotes the sustainable development of society. Socialism will finally defeat capitalism on a global scale.

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Essay代写：Stock market reform in the United States

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Stock market reform in the United States，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国的股票市场改革。经过长达一年半的艰苦努力，美国证监会主席威廉·唐纳森推行的美国股票市场改革终于通过了，新的全国市场系统监管条例反映了证监会寻求更加积极主动进行市场监管、推进股票交易进一步电子化的努力。新监管规则核心是，市场要给股票投资者提供全部市场上的最佳价格，或使交易转移到能提供更好价格的市场上完成。

After a year and a half of hard work, William Donaldson, chairman of the securities and exchange commission, has finally begun to reform the American stock market.

On April 7th the securities and exchange commission (SEC) voted 3-2 to approve the national market system regulation bill introduced last February. The new rules reflect the CSRC's efforts to take a more proactive approach to market regulation and push stock trading further electronic.

At the heart of the new rules is a market that offers stock investors the best prices in all markets, or moves trades to markets that offer better prices. Currently, only the New York stock exchange offers trading protection, neither nasdaq nor insider trading - trades made by brokers among their own clients.

The CSRC's market regulator estimates that one in 40 trades on the nasdaq were made at sub-optimal prices; One in 30 insider trades. That means 98,000 trades a day at sub-optimal prices on nasdaq alone.

The passage of the new rules is considered the "most profound" change to the national market system in the 30 years since congress created it.

In his comments to the SFC meeting that day, donaldson called on people not to "adopt a resistance approach" to reform. He stresses that inaction and reform are easiest for the SEC, nyse and nasdaq; But the only victims are investors.

The SFC reform will be implemented gradually and will also provide guidance to stock exchanges. Implementation of the rules began on April 10, 2006. The move will involve 100 stocks on the nyse and nasdaq, and 50 on the American stock exchange. The pilot will run until June 9, 2006, and full implementation will begin on June 12, 2006.

Passing the reform will not be easy. Many large institutional investors, including fidelity investment funds, have strongly objected. They claim this regulatory approach prevents them from completing large and complex transactions more quickly. Many large investors worry that forcing them to trade in markets that offer the best prices will slow down big deals significantly.

In the face of these concerns, the CSRC in its final revision limited trading protection to electronic trading and did not include manual trading in the new system. That means trading won't be shifted to the nyse's slow manual trading system because of price.

Typically, a human transaction can take 30 seconds to complete. Since market prices can change at any time between the issuance of trading orders and the closing of transactions, the CSRC does not require the implementation of trade protection in manual trading.

Even within the SEC, opposition to reform was once strong, involving two of its five commissioners. Among them, Paul Atkins said at a conference on April 6th: "most people at the SEC, in the name of retail investors, decided to sacrifice market efficiency in order to regulate competition and set prices."

Opponents argue that the reform focuses too much on price and ignores the importance of the non-monetary form of competition-speed competition. Because there are large, complex transactions that want to be done quickly, the search for the best price slows down the speed and efficiency. Mr Atkins argues that forcing investors to pursue only the best prices leads to a centralised market structure that is "detrimental to the forces of competition and innovation".

He cited the previous commission's reluctance to move towards a more centralised system, adding that "the present commission will certainly learn from its own mistakes".

Republicans in congress, including Richard baker, chairman of the house subcommittee on capital markets, also strongly oppose the reforms. Baker called the reforms "horrible steps to make our free market system less free." He and several other members of congress have threatened to introduce a bill in congress to repeal the new reforms.

Mr Donaldson, chairman of the securities and exchange commission, is an advocate and staunch supporter of reform. 'the main goal of regulation is to help smaller investors,' he said. Big institutional investors have the means to trade in their chosen markets, while small investors may be forced to accept second-best prices from their brokers.

Mr Donaldson worries that smaller investors often have problems with "how to monitor their traders"; there is enough incentive for traders to trade at the best price against the interests of their investors.

This is a legitimate concern, especially for small investors, who have an incentive to build better relationships with other traders rather than small investors, since they interact less often than with other traders. "The interests of agents and their clients are often in conflict. Brokers can have a strong financial incentive to complete orders in a particular market, even if prices are lower there." Donaldson says,

Brokers are now bound by best practice duties. That means they should act in the best interests of their customers. But monitoring such individual trades in a market of tens of millions of dollars a day is actually extremely difficult. Mr Donaldson believes the new rules will support the same principle at the macro market level.

Many in the market also welcomed the change, including the investment company institute. This is an institution that represents 95% of mutual fund assets in the United States.

According to the SEC, the benefits of this reform are clear. The one-time cost of setting up the policies and procedures is $144 million, with annual fees estimated at $22 million, while investors will gain $321 million a year from the reforms -- $209 million from nasdaq and $112 million from nyse, estimates market regulation director anai natzaris.

In the end, the reform was carried out largely because of the necessary technical conditions provided by electronic transactions. The new rules, in turn, will boost electronic trading.

The securities and exchange commission's reforms in recent years have forced an increasing share of stock trading to go electronic. At a public hearing in April 2004, both the New York stock exchange and the American stock exchange announced plans to significantly increase their electronic trading volumes.

Under pressure and incentives from the SEC and new trading rules, the nyse is already preparing to increase its share of electronic trading. This may be the most important long-term impact of the reform - the transition to a fully electronic trading system.

For now, the nyse insists it will keep trading by hand, but that old practice seems to be fading. But it is still too early to go entirely electronic. The New York stock exchange, which now accounts for 80 per cent of trading volume in the us, has gone electronic only 10 per cent of the time.

The nyse has changed the original intention of against the new rule, and vote in the securities and futures commission, said in a statement soon after the reform "for investors and the market is a big step forward, for all the people in a fair and impartial platform, for the securities market in the United States, competition and maintain the growth of the world's best provides a reasonable framework."

The nyse plans to expand its "direct+" trading system to promote more electronic transactions to take advantage of new trading rules. Nyse has more trading volume than nasdaq, making it more likely that its shares will trade at a higher price than nasdaq's share price, allowing it to attract more trading volume and further expand its market share.

A nasdaq spokesman told the magazine: "although we have a highly effective electronic market, the nasdaq didn't feel the need to apply the new trading rules, but we are very glad to see that the new rules will force artificial market follows the rise since 1971, the nasdaq automation market road." In any case, the impact on the structure of the market is already being felt.

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