Essay代写：America's health-care system

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- America's health-care system，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国的医疗保险体系。在美国，其医疗保障主要是通过大部分私立医疗保险和小部分政府医疗计划来实现的，旨在为人们应对身体伤害，残疾或意外死亡或其他意外因素致死，或由疾病引起的费用等提供补偿的一种保险。所以，医保体系是由多种非政府私立医疗保险项目、政府对特殊人群医疗照顾和补助项目构成的。政府主要的健康保险计划则包括医疗补助和医疗保险，具体有老年人医疗照顾、低收入人群医疗补助计划、退伍军人医疗照顾、特殊患者医疗照顾等。

In the United States, the medical security is mainly realized through most private medical insurance and a small number of government medical plans. It is a kind of insurance that aims to provide compensation for people's response to physical injury, disability or accidental death or other accidental factors, or expenses caused by diseases. Therefore, the medical insurance system is composed of a variety of non-government private medical insurance programs, government's medical care and subsidy programs for special groups. Its private or commercial health insurance industry and government or public health insurance industry serve different populations and provide a wide range of assistance and programs. Private health insurance includes plans for paid services, plans for managing paid services, health maintenance organizations, preferred provider organizations, and service point plans. The government's major health insurance programs include medicaid and medicare, including medicare for the elderly, medicaid for low-income people, medicare for veterans, and medicare for special patients.

The modern American public and private health insurance system began in the early 20th century. The private health insurance industry in the United States, as we know it today, began in 1929 with the baylor hospital providing an advance payment for 1,200 teachers. This plan became known as the blue cross insurance plan. The number and popularity of private health insurance programs grew during world war ii. During world war ii, most wages were frozen as part of the war effort. Private companies, unable to offer higher salaries, are turning to health benefits to attract potential employees. By 1943, the blue cross health insurance program offered 43 services. The tax foundation for our current employer-sponsored health insurance system, employer and general benefit plans, was established in 1913 when the U.S. congress passed the 16th amendment to legalize the individual and corporate income tax. These companies, which don't tax high-paying benefits, are starting to cut the cost of those benefits by deducting taxes from their corporate income taxes. For now, employers are still balancing the health insurance they pay for their employees with the tax exemptions provided by the irs.

At the same time, the federally mandated parametric health benefit program for commercial health insurance is implemented under the comprehensive budget coordination act and other federal laws. Employee health plans, along with many other benefits, evolved from the employee retirement income protection act of 1974, which established minimum standards to provide individuals with the protection of these plans through the most advanced private voluntary industry plans. Employee health benefits programs typically include COBRA benefits such as primary care, hospitalization insurance, mental health assistance, newborn and birth assistance, and cancer assistance for a limited period of time after losing a job. In some cases, federal regulations dictate what kind of benefit plans the company offers to its employees.

The federal and state governments provide health insurance for the elderly, the unemployed and the disabled. The government's health insurance program is a form of social insurance, which refers to any insurance program or government authorization to provide financial assistance to the unemployed, the elderly, or the disabled. Examples of social security programs include social security, disability insurance, survivor insurance, unemployment insurance, and medicare for people 65 and older. In 2005, social security programs accounted for 37 percent of federal spending. There is a significant difference between social insurance programs and welfare programs. For example, participation in social security programmes is usually mandatory or is the result of substantial financial subsidies. Social security is not an intentional form of income redistribution.

According to health economists, modern medicare is in crisis. On the basis of the employment relationship of insurance and government are working to provide cost-effective services to the general public, the characteristics of the type of employment insurance is high administrative cost, cost sharing, unfair fails to cover large segments of the population, easy to cause labor disputes, employers cannot take effective action to make health insurance more cost-effective. The government's health insurance, medicaid and medicare, are experiencing rising rates and costs.

Employment-based insurance peaked in the 1980s. Factors contributing to the decline in employment-insurance coverage over the past two decades include the growth of large multinational corporations, the role of unions, the shift from community-based premiums to actuarial risk-based premiums, and the impact of medicare and medicaid. The government's health-insurance scheme has also run into problems. The government has been trying to rein in the rising costs of medicare and medicaid by tweaking its reimbursement strategy. In the 1980s, medicare and medicaid changed from a retroactive cost-based approach to a forward-looking payment system. The change is designed to give hospitals more incentive to control costs. This design makes the reimbursement to the hospital independent of the actual expense rate incurred. This change has led many doctors and hospitals to refuse to treat patients enrolled in medicare and medicaid. Options for reducing medical assistance and costs include reducing medical services, mandatory employer coverage, service costs, eligibility criteria for re-employment, and reduced compensation for doctors and hospitals.

The problems of health insurance mainly include the rising cost, the insufficient coverage of population in many sectors, interest groups, politicians and voters' calls for health insurance reform. To address these issues, health care reform focuses on the following: health insurance finance reform, non-means tested insurance reform, organization and service delivery, quality control, and cost-benefit trade-off reform. Advocates for a debate on whether health insurance reform should be gradual or comprehensive. The incremental reform strategy mainly includes employer obligations, subsidies, medicare and medicaid, health savings accounts, competition in management, quality incentives, etc., and comprehensive reform measures including individual obligations, individual payment plans, vouchers, etc.

In the final analysis, medicare offers many plans, including employer-sponsored group health insurance, individual health insurance, medicare and medicaid. Despite their high coverage and reach, these programs do not meet the health needs of all Americans. In 2005, nearly one in six Americans had no health insurance. At the moment, employers, especially in the small business sector, are cutting benefits to reduce costs by making workers pay more or by reducing health coverage. Without health insurance, they are increasingly turning to government-run health insurance schemes, such as medicaid and medicare. In 2004, 27.2 percent of Americans enrolled in a government health insurance program. Workers, especially low-wage workers, are enrolled in government health insurance programs for their own health needs. While the U.S. health insurance reform seems necessary and possible, the type and number of reforms still need to be further discussed.

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Assignment代写：Neiman

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- Neiman，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了尼曼。尼曼是一个零售商品牌，经过了100多年的发展之后，如今已成为美国以经营奢侈品为主的连锁高端百货商店，是当今美国最高档、最独特的奢侈品零售商之一。一直以来，尼曼致力于给消费者提供最具特色的高品质商品，人们总能将它与顶尖设计师、时尚优雅、奢华家居，以及无与伦比的美妙礼物联系在一起。位于旧金山的尼曼百货是尼曼旗下标志性的店面之一，在环境华贵优美的商店里，尼曼百货售卖的是世界顶尖的品牌和商品，而尼曼持续推崇的顶级客户服务也已经成为它的品牌内涵之一。

In 1907, Herbert Marcus, A 29-year-old American, together with his sister Carrie Marcus and her husband a. l. Neiman, opened A 50-square-meter store in Dallas, Texas, with $25,000 and part of the funds raised through the sale of shares to their families. Taking this as the starting point, this retailer brand named Neiman Marcus, after more than 100 years of development history, has become a chain of high-end department stores mainly engaged in luxury goods in the United States and is one of the most upscale and unique luxury retailers in the United States today.

For a long time, nieman has been committed to providing consumers with the most distinctive high-quality products, which can always be associated with top designers, fashion elegance, luxury home, and unparalleled wonderful gifts. One of its signature stores, neiman marcus in San Francisco, has become one of the city's most famous sights, with its gilded decor, a skylight on its graphic roof and stained-glass panels depicting the ancient city of Paris. In beautiful and luxurious shops, nyman department store sells the world's top brands and products, and the top customer service that nyman continuously advocates has become one of its brand connotations.

Neiman started out as a clothing store for the entire Dallas area, with the goal of bringing a different style of women's fashion to the American southwest. On September 1, 1907, neiman ran the first advertisement in a local newspaper, the Dallas morning news: "the goal of a good store should be to stay in the lead." With this in mind, nieman has consolidated its position as the "high fashion kingdom," and brands that were never thought to have a presence in the Dallas area have gained a wide following through nieman's sales. At the time, nieman also acquired the best specialty lines in the entire state of Texas for different styles of women's wear. As the first specialty store in the southern United States, nyman was able to establish an excellent monopoly chain through exclusive management. At that time, nieman put a lot of energy into the middle-price goods as well as the imported goods, and tried his best to obtain the same quality and workmanship as the high fashion at the lowest price. Since then, nieman has been adhering to the fashion, quality, extraordinary value concept and quality service until today.

From the beginning of the business, Marcus family has been in charge of the operation of Neiman Marcus and adheres to the business principle of co-founder Herbert Marcus faithfully: "if you can't provide high-quality shopping for customers, there will be no success for Neiman Marcus. "We are selling a comfortable shopping experience, not just merchandise." The firm almost lost its head before a fire in 1913. But the founders restored it quickly and with astonishing tenacity, opening its first flagship store in 1914. In 1926, the employees of sengle brothers were dismissed by the purchaser, and most of them went to nieman's company. Together with a large number of loyal customers, they were transferred to nieman's brand, which laid a good foundation for nieman's future growth. In the same year, nieman became a leader in the fashion industry by holding the first ever fashion show in the United States at the nieman store in New York. In 1928, nieman began selling men's clothing, such as French ties and British shirts. In 1934, nieman became the first retailer to launch a national marketing campaign, advertising in national fashion magazines such as Vogue and Harper's Bazaar. In 1938, as the business grew, nieman began to offer unique, high-end goods named after European and American designers, and the first batch of nieman's cooperative designers included Christian Dior, Gabrielle Chanel and so on. In 1939, nieman published his first annual Christmas catalog, which included fine coats, fashion accessories, perfumes, toys, and more.

When more than half of the stores in New York is the world's top fashion brands rapidly occupation at the same time, the NPC is in Texas, 2000 miles away, "the countryside" provide people with a simple fashion aristocratic way of life, the good brand won the allegiance of the United States and respect, and in 1953 by the fashion magazine Vogue doubt whether there is hidden a fashion genius.

In 1984, nieman pioneered the industry's first customer loyalty tracking system. In 1988, it bought Horchow Collection, a home retail brand, expanding its range to include household goods. In 1989, nieman acquired Bergdorf Goodman, a department store and retail brand, and formed nieman group in 1989. In 1999, Neiman Marcus Direct was established by Neiman group to carry out Direct sales of luxury goods on the Internet. So far, the main business of nieman group covers retail and direct sales, including the high-end department stores of Neiman Marcus and Bergdorf Goodman. It can be seen that nieman has always been in the forefront of the same industry in the United States both in terms of fashion trends and retail brand development, and it is not difficult to understand why it can become an evergreen tree of luxury sales in the United States.

By 2007, the number of stores of nieman group had reached 39, including 37 Neiman Marcus stores and 2 Bergdorf Goodman stores. In 2007, the sales revenue reached 4.39 billion us dollars, making it the top-performing high-end department store focusing on luxury goods in the United States at that time. Today, nieman has more than 5 million square meters of boutique department stores in the United States, including 40 Neiman Marcus department stores, 2 Bergdorf Goodman boutique stores and 26 end-of-season merchandise promotion stores. Nieman's online luxury site, shopping, also offers women's, men's and home luxury brands.

There is one crucial word about the luxury industry -- prestige. The prestige of a luxury retailer largely affects its bottom line. In 2006, the United States, the Luxury goods industry research Institute key-2 Luxury Institute survey report released by the Luxury brand value index has four pillars: value stable top quality, unique features, a symbol of social status, make customer feel the noble identity service levels, and in the four evaluation, NPC group in top quality and service level of the two.

With a history of more than 100 years, neiman marcus has always adhered to its mission -- to discover and showcase the creative talents of fashion design, and to provide top-quality products, quality services and extraordinary value. The positioning of high-end goods of nieman group has always been clear, and the combination of "top brand + designer brand + trend series brand" builds its own luxury kingdom. Its high-end brands include: Burberry, Prada, Valentino, Armani, Chloe, Fendi, Dior, D&G and other world's top brands, as well as designer collections and trend collections. In its stores, hundreds of thousands of dollars of custom clothing, million-dollar diamond heels abound. In addition, the focus of nieman's service projects, mainly including gift packaging, consignment, commodity modification, especially wedding consulting services, has become one of the characteristics of nieman services. Nieman department store has a special wedding service line, which provides customers with a series of personalized services such as gift selection and wedding guidance. When the purchase amount reaches $2,000, the club account will be opened automatically to enjoy exclusive privileges. One of its founders, Herbert Marcus, once described nieman as a "department store with a specialty store mentality", the kind of specialisation that has kept it a top American luxury retailer. Committed to the cultivation of new brands with rising potential, both avant-garde enough to ensure sales. Once a new brand is recognized in the market, nieman's cultivation of it will earn special rewards -- the right to exhibit new products in the first place, the earliest sales time, and even the exclusive rights in some markets. The operation of the luxury industry requires influence, which requires novelty and sensationalism. The ability to live in "extravagant luxury" has become an important indicator of the reputation of the industry. Nieman group in this area of the skills of the fire. Check out its Christmas gift list, which includes everything from $400,000 robots to $1.45 million bowling alleys to $10 million airships. Nieman group understands the word "luxury" to the extreme. It is precisely the precise and meticulous positioning grasp and customer focus, the innovative approach of excelsior brand value, and the excellent intuition and feeling of the operation team for the word "luxury" that make nieman group thrive in the field of luxury retail.

The 2008 financial crisis hit nieman hard, and the company suffered a decline, with sales of $3.6 billion in 2009 -- a 21 percent drop from a year earlier -- resulting in a net loss of $668 million. In recent years, with the recovery of the market, nieman group's sales resumed growth, reaching 4.5 billion us dollars in 2012, achieving a year-on-year growth of 7% and a net profit of 140 million us dollars. Although nieman group is doing well in the United States, but it is still not an "international" company, its brand is still lack of visibility in the global scope.

In 2010 Karen Katz was appointed President and chief executive of nieman group, the first time in the company's history that a woman had held the top leadership position. And this new leader also lives up to the expectations. In order to face the new challenges in the new media era, she spares no effort to innovate in many aspects. Karen Katz launched a number of new marketing initiatives and opened discount stores to revamp existing Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus stores. In 2010, the company opened its first concept store, Last Call Studio, in Dallas, Texas. In 2010, LastCall.com, an online business, launched. Bergdorf Goodman launched Today's Shoe in 2010. That same year, the Bergdorf Goodman blog was launched. In 2011, a nieman blog called NM Daily went live.

Nieman group has reached a bottleneck in the number of stores in the United States, so the global development is imperative. But nieman group's "going out" step appears to be extremely careful. Announced on March 22, 2012, Karen Katz NPC group of private e-commerce company charm hui Hong Kong holdings co., LTD., to invest the controlling strategy, NPC group to charm you holding co., LTD., a $28 million investment, to promote charm existing limited-time sales business growth in Asia, and to establish a new brand of e-commerce business. Indeed, the move is an attempt by nieman to tap into the fast-growing Chinese luxury retail market. Karen Katz says: "we have the ambition to take this important step forward in building nieman into an international brand. "Through our strategic investment in glamour China, glamour China will become a strong partner for us in the Chinese market and also lay a solid foundation for us in the fast-growing luxury market in China.

In December 2012, nieman group officially launched its e-commerce platform in China, with its operation center and warehouse located in Shanghai. In order to achieve goals, combining fashion group more than hundred years of experience and long-term partnerships with many international top designer brands, special arrangement, senior fashion buying team in New York, milan, Paris and so on around the world, specifically for Chinese customers to find and choose the most unique and quality of clothing, shoes and other kinds of fashion goods.

Nieman chose to enter China to profit from the country's booming consumer demand for luxury goods, but at the same time it had to contend with the high retail costs of entering the Chinese market. Statistics show that in the five years from 2008 to 2013, China's domestic distribution cost increased by 200%, storage cost increased by 23%, and advertising and marketing cost increased by nearly 50%. In addition, shop rents, logistics and Labour costs in prime locations are rising year by year. Like macy's, another American boutique fashion brand, nieman has chosen to enter China through e-commerce so it doesn't have to make a huge investment to open a physical store right away and test the water for future openings.

However, although e-commerce reduces the channel cost of nieman, it cannot solve the problem of its brand. Whether in physical stores or e-commerce, nieman has never set foot in the Chinese market before. For nieman, relying solely on online sales may be difficult to establish retail brand awareness. After all, Chinese consumers know little about nieman's brand.

In May 2013, nieman group had to change its original development strategy -- cancel storage facilities in China and scale back its operating entities. While nyman's China site will continue to operate, the company's Chinese site will only serve as the Chinese version of the U.S. official website and will be maintained by a smaller customer service and marketing team in Shanghai. All goods will be shipped directly from the U.S. Brands such as Kate Spade, Helmut Lang, Valentino and Jimmy Choo will be delivered directly from warehouses in the United States. That could lead to longer shipping times and thus be affected by currency fluctuations, but Mr. Nieman called it a 'good move' that would include quicker delivery of the latest fashion items to Chinese consumers without being influenced by local authorities. According to the financial report released by nieman group in March 2014, the loss of its e-commerce project in China reached 2.1 million us dollars. Obviously, in the competitive environment of Chinese luxury sales, it is hard to avoid "acclimatization" for nieman group to rely only on the business model of combining luxury goods and pure e-commerce.

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提高英文写作能力的几本书籍

想必同学们也知道，在国外留学，会有很多英文写作等着大家，非常考验大家的英文写作能力。当然，留学生的英文写作能力普遍不太好，所以非常需要去提升英文写作能力。下面就给大家分享几本看了就能提高英文写作能力的书籍。

《Stein on Writing》

索尔·斯坦是一位作家、编辑和出版商。他是《斯坦论写作（Stein on Writing）》的作者，这本书旨在帮助非虚构类和各级小说作家。

书中作者会用亲切的语气告诉我们该如何记录和讲述自己的故事，将自己经历的点点滴滴都生动地描述于纸上，比如childhood memories, regrets, missed opportunities等。

作者指出:“这不是一本理论书。而是一本有用的解决方案的书——它会教你如何修正有缺陷的写作，如何改进好的写作，如何在一开始就创造有趣的写作。”

这本书每章后都有小练习，帮读者对该章内容进一步思考、理解、吸收。比如第一章“Keeping a notebook”里的练习包括make a list of movies or stars that were your favorites as a teenager, describe your case of unrequited love等二十多练习题目。

总之，无论你是写作小白还是经验丰富的写手，这本书都将为你提供即时有用的写作建议，提高你的写作力。

《The Craft of Scientific Presentations》

《科学报告的艺术》（The Craft of Scientific Presentations）是宾夕法尼亚州立大学工程通信副教授迈克尔·艾黎（Michael Alley）写的。这本书的价值旨在帮助读者提高科学报告的水平、提高科学写作的效率。

本书最大的“亮点”是倡导“论点-论据”科学报告结构，它与很多工程师和科学家常用的PowerPoint默认“主话题-子话题”报告结构不同。前者要求每页幻灯片提炼一条简洁的句式论点标题，并用视觉证据加以支撑；后者的主话题用短语表达，子话题用着重号列表罗列。通过对比这两种方式的截然不同的效果，总结了科学报告中必须避免的13个“致命”错误。

书中不仅分析了使阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦（Albert Einstein）、布赖恩·科克斯（Brian Cox）、简·古道尔（Jane Goodall）、理查德·费曼（Richard Feynman）、博尔特·泰勒（Jill Bolte Taylor）等人成为杰出演讲者的因素，也讨论了使很多演讲者报告失败的原因。

在阅读本书时，你可以看到书中展示精彩和乏味报告之间的差别通过总结设计幻灯片的方法步骤，从而让你学会如何提高科学报告水平。

《Save the Cat》

布莱克·斯奈德（Blake Snyder）是好莱坞的著名编剧。他所著的《拯救猫咪（Save The Cat）》也是编剧界的畅销书，堪称“电影编剧宝典”。

《拯救猫咪》，是一本编剧界的经典入门教程。在这本书中，作者布莱克·斯奈德贡献了很多关于电影编剧方面的建议。其中最系统有力的，当属其总结出的电影剧本的十大类型。

本书从叙事学的角度切入，结合作者丰富的创编经历，对电影编剧创作规律进行了详尽地阐述，书中的每一页都是干货。它从职业的角度告诉读者应该怎样编写一部剧本，并且成功将它卖出去。作者在阐述观点时会列举几部好莱坞电影作为例证，读者可以从字里行间发现好莱坞在故事情节设计方面特有的一套已经形成体系的“潜规则”。作为观众，了解这些规则，将会给你带来不同的观影体验。

这本书以其对所谓“节拍”的讨论而闻名。斯奈德创造了一个基本的元素公式，几乎适合每个故事。虽说书籍最初是为了帮助编剧改进他们的工艺而写的，但在许多创作学科的作家中，它也开始变得非常受欢迎。

对于还未申请大学的同学来说，你要知道，好文书其实=讲好故事（storytelling）。这本书也许会帮提高讲故事能力哦。

《You Can’t Make This Stuff Up》

对于想从事新闻媒体行业的同学来说，李·古特金德（Lee Gutkind）的《你不能编造这些东西（You Can’t Make This Stuff Up）》这本书将会是一本不错的选择。它会让你有能力通过创造性的视角来提高自己的写作水平。

一般来说，一篇成功的新闻文章是在提供事实的同时，达到吸引读者的目的。作者在本书中提供了各种写作的技巧和步骤，从回忆录到文学新闻，以及介于两者之间的一切。从关于将非小说变成创造性写作的道德问题到处理事实与虚构之间的细微差别，在各种例子之间，作者提供了成功的具体方法，可以用来完善大家的写作。

有了这本写作指南，你的写作风格也会变得更真实，更有趣。

《A Poetry Handbook》

对诗歌感兴趣的同学，这本由玛丽·奥利弗(Mary Oliver)撰写的《诗歌手册》(A Poetry Handbook)将会教你诗歌的基本构成方式，包括音韵，形式和用语措辞，声音和感觉。除此之外，作者还会在书中告诉你写作修改的必要性以及写作研讨会的利弊。

奥利弗是普利策奖和诗歌国家图书奖的获得者，在清晰，易懂的散文的教学中，玛丽·奥利弗（Mary Oliver）的这本书占有一席之地。书中提供了所有诗人必须学习和掌握的基本工具。通过一些基本的技巧，让读者可以利用这些技巧创作出属于自己最杰出的作品。

有人评论到：在学习诗歌技巧和风格的历史时，我发现捕捉关键概念很容易。而且，我明白了写一首能引起读者共鸣的诗需要什么。这本书在方法上更具技术性，可能会把那些对学习写作或诗歌技巧不感兴趣的人抛在身后。尽管如此，玛丽的观点很好地说明了“诗歌是通过天才和技巧而存在的”。她提供了手册、写作工作室等的价值作为支持，同时强调诗歌需要作者“一段深邃而不间断的孤独”。这是并且将永远是你轻敲你的声音的方式。”

总之，好的写作有节奏，意思就是作者在你阅读时在你的脑海中刻意营造的节奏。如果你不学会欣赏其他作家作品中的音乐和诗歌，你就永远无法在自己的作品中培养它们。

《101 Creative Writing Exercises》

梅丽莎·多诺万（Melissa Donovan）是美国著名的文案撰稿人，专业博主和写作教练，她所写的《101种创造性写作练习》（101 Creative Writing Exercises）探索了不同形式的创造性写作。比如小说、写日记，讲故事，写诗，写博客等等。

该书旨在引导和教授读者发现有效的写作概念、工具和技巧。锻炼大家写出可以发布的文章内容，启发和激发你的写作灵感。如果你想学习开发创意写作技巧，写出有创造性的文章，并享受写作的乐趣，那么这本书将会很适合你。

《The Elements of Style》

The Elements of Style,中文译为《风格的要素》，最早出版于1918年，是近一个世纪以来流传为广泛的英语写作手册之一。初为常春藤盟校康奈尔大学英语写作教材，现在美国大学生几乎人手一本。它的内容包括了11条“英语用法的基本规则”，11条“写作的基本原则”，写作格式的注意事项，以及一份包含“常被误用的单词和短语清单”。是各大美国校园人文类课堂上的必备书籍。

该书正文只有不到一百页，但全书没有赘言或枯燥的理论，都是要点和例子。从语法的使用（如parenthesis,quotations等的使用）到如何写出生动简明的句子（如write with nouns and verbs,do not overwrite）,还有逗号的用法、分句、段落和结构等，可谓面面俱到。因此，它也被《时代》杂志评为自1923年以来100部最有影响力的英语文学作品之一。

这是一本写作常备工具书，它为学习者提供了英文写作的方法，教大家如何删繁就简、字字珠玑，尤其适合参加托福、SAT、GRE等考试的学生以及需要进行简洁的商务信函写作的人群。

《On Writing Well》

The Elements of Style出版后，一直没有哪本其他写作书能与它媲美，直到近六十年后（1976年）On Writing Well的诞生。这本经典书比起它的前辈，有着更详尽的分析指导，更进一步的例子讲解，而且集中论述了大多数人最关心的写作内容—非小说类文学作品（non-fiction）。

如今，On Writing Well几乎成为了所有的写作书单上都会出现的一本书。它是非小说类文学作品（non-fiction）的经典写作指南，并且被《纽约时报》誉为“写作圣经”。

这本书详细地介绍了写作的准则、方法、形式以及作者本人的写作心得，对于采访、游记、传记、科学科技、日常工作、体育、文艺批评和评论等不同的写作题材都给出了十分具体的建议。教会读者简洁地使用有自己风格的语言清晰地表达观点，并且从读者的角度出发，思考文字的实际效果。

如果你最想学的是如何正确使用语法句式，这本书恐怕不能完全满足你的需要（虽然有的章节会涉及到这些方面，如Chapter 10“Bits&Pieces”）。但如果你关心的是如何挖掘自己的风格，提高自己英文写作的水准，和你的读者有心灵对话的话，那这绝对是一本必读书。

The clarity of your writing reflects the clarity of your thought.写作的过程，是能力综合运用的过程，也是思维整合的过程。提高我们的写作水平，学会恰当地描述你内心想法，用简洁的语言来传达我们的信息、吸引读者的注意力是大多数去美国留学的学生需要掌握的基础能力。

拥有深层次的英文写作能力，不仅是你适应美国大学学习生活的需要，更有助于你提高对生活、对周边人或事的感知力。

以上就是给大家分享的八本提高英文写作能力的必备书籍，希望大家看完之后，都能大幅提高英文写作能力，然后写好英文论文。

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Paper代写：Hegel's Philosophy

本篇paper代写- Hegel's Philosophy讨论了黑格尔哲学。黑格尔作为唯心主义哲学之集大成者，创建了哲学史上最庞大、最全面的思辨唯心主义体系。他不仅从唯心主义立场出发，系统总结和高度概括了整个西方哲学史，而且对德国古典哲学进行了深刻的理性批判，并将理性原则发挥到了极致，实现了对以往形而上学的终结――以独特方式实现了形而上学成为科学之科学的最高理想。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

The limitation of the traditional Western philosophical thinking mode is that it can't get rid of the restriction of the subject-object dichotomy. Hegel used the idealism dialectics to make the philosophy break through the limitation of this kind of cognitive thinking, and arrived at the high realm of "saying not to say, thinking not thinking". The dialectic and negation of Hegel's philosophy is the characteristic of his philosophy system, which provides methodological guidance for the establishment of Marxist philosophy. However, there is a profound contradiction between the dialectical and negative revolutionary nature of Hegel's philosophy system and its idealism system. On the basis of practice, Marx reformed the dialectic and negation of Hegel's philosophy, founded the Marxist philosophy embodying the times, grasping the regularity and being creative, so as to make Marxist philosophy become the essence of the spirit of the times and the living soul of civilization.

Before Hegel, the traditional Western thought-form ontology philosophical thinking mode, such as the implementation of the end, will inevitably reach the "not to say" situation. The limitation of this kind of cognitive thinking is that it can't get rid of the restriction of the subject-object dichotomy and reach infinity. First of all, the limitation of cognitive thinking is Kant, in his view, cognitive thinking can only recognize the phenomenon, but not the phenomenon behind the "object of the Body", if the forced use of this cognitive thinking way to understand the object of the body, it will fall into a priori illusion and lead to the paradox. Hegel used speculative dialectics to inherit, criticize and develop Kant's philosophy, so that philosophy finally broke through the limitations of cognitive thinking, arrived at the kind of "can not be said, thinking can not think" to the high. What is the nature of Hegel's philosophical system? What is its revelation to Marxist philosophy? How does Marxist philosophy discard and surpass it? This paper attempts to discuss these problems.

Hegel, as a synthesizer of idealism philosophy, has created the most extensive and comprehensive system of speculative idealism in the history of philosophy. Almost all the things that can be said and done in an idealistic position, Hegel have reached the highest and the most exclusive. He not only embarks from the idealism standpoint, the system summarizes and summarizes the whole Western philosophy history, and has carried on the profound rational critique to the German classical philosophy, and has exerted the rational principle to the Acme, has realized the metaphysical end ―― in the past to realize metaphysics to be the highest ideal of science in a unique way. This is the value of Hegel's philosophy. The system of speculative idealism constructed by Hegel, although there are many far-fetched, rote, but the integrity of its thinking, completeness is still an insurmountable philosophy of the high mountain, unless completely beyond Hegel's philosophy, or completely reverse his philosophy to the thinking, otherwise can not further promote the development of philosophy.

Philosophy is not a simple assertion of individual facts, nor a coin that can be used directly. The value of philosophy lies in its wholeness and system, "if philosophy has no system, it cannot become science". Philosophy can reach a theoretical form only through specific concepts, categories and logical argumentation, and through systematization and theoretical condensation and promotion. However, the perfection of philosophy system and the advantages of comprehensiveness are often dispelled by the controversy of divergent opinions and different. In the history of philosophy, philosophers of every age have almost all established their own so-called philosophical system, without exception, claiming that they have discovered the ultimate truth, but have been replaced ruthlessly by the later theory system.

On the face of it, philosophy is like a false exhibition hall, which is a simple piling up of all kinds of heterogeneous discourses; it is like a battlefield of fighting, every new system overcomes the old system. "Let the dead man bury their dead, and follow me," said Hegel profoundly, "but he did not see that the man who had come to bury himself had been standing at the door." This shows that the development of philosophy is a process from the low to the advanced historical development, philosophy is always on the road, on the way, will not eventually stop at a point. The theory system in history is always more complete than its previous theory system, it overcomes the shortcoming of the previous system and retains its advantages. When an old theory system is overthrown by a new theory system, the old theory system will retain its advantages in the same way and become a link of the overall development of philosophy. In this respect, we should oppose both dogmatism and skepticism. In fact, philosophy is both the truth and the opinion, it is the internal unity of the two. Because every philosophical system is only a specific link in the Encyclopedia of Truth, all the philosophies are integrated to form the whole of truth. Any philosophical system requires the mastery of its infinite and universal nature beyond the finite, concrete things. The object of philosophy is different from science, the science always takes special thing as its research object, catches is also some special law, while philosophy will be the Universal Infinite World as its research object, it studies the Basic Law of the development of nature, society and human thought, namely general law.

The reason why philosophers want to establish various philosophy system, its fundamental purport is to try to find beyond limited and access infinite thought channel, for this reason always drew to seek new method of understanding thing and solve a problem new way. This shows that the history of philosophy boils down to the problem history, the problem that philosophy solves is eternal subject, can't have a certainty answer, "and can only take a variety of different solution" [3]. Therefore, the fundamental meaning and function of philosophy lies not in the fact that it forms the definitive answer on the concrete question, but lies in the pursuit of the lofty ideal realm of life, the ultimate concern for the meaning and value of life. Philosophy cannot be a kind of science, it is not its flaw but it is its unusual trait, of course it is its eternal charm. The history of philosophy is not the cumulative history of knowledge, but the transformation history of the solution way of eternal and ultimate problems, but also the evolution of each other's different philosophies. The true value of philosophy lies not in providing some specific knowledge and information, but in solving the problem of the Times. Philosophers ' ideas and opinions may one day become obsolete, but their way of solving problems is never outdated, and the value and significance of their ideas lies in the special way in which they think and solve problems, because it leaves people with unusual things. Philosophers ' different ways of thinking and studying, together, constitute the whole theory pedigree of the development of philosophy.

Some concrete conclusions of Hegel's philosophy system may have been outdated, but it is difficult to find a way to overcome the problem, its ideology contains the dialectical and negative, but also its former philosophy system can not be compared. Dialectic is one of the characteristics of Hegel's philosophy system, and also the special method and path of its investigation. Hegel in the principle of the subjectivity of modern philosophy, it restores the dialectic tradition of Western ancient philosophy, overcomes the metaphysical malady of modern mechanistic philosophy, and thus forms a self closed and speculative system of idealism. Dialectics, as a rational kernel, lies in the system of Hegel's philosophy, which is the key to solve all the philosophical problems, and also the great contribution he makes to human thinking. Dialectics is the most fundamental to Hegel's system, which is the soul and core of the first, and its spiritual trait or essence. It is impossible to grasp the philosophy system without dialectics, which will lead to the hollow of its philosophical system. Hegel's previous philosophy, when transcending limited certainty, invariably fell into a paradox, and philosophers always tried to find a new way out of the dilemma. The day when Hegel first came to the stage of philosophy was the time when modern philosophy got into trouble. The dilemma of modern philosophy stems from the one-sidedness of thinking mode, which Kant calls the two-body thinking of the subject and object dichotomy as "intellectual thinking", and like Kant, Hegel also believes that this kind of cognitive thinking can only recognize the phenomenon and cannot hold the essence of things.

Hegel resorted to Dialectics to solve the problem. Because the dialectical nature of thinking provides us with a possibility to break the fixed bounds of the cognitive thinking and to regain the brightness, that is, only by abandoning the fixed rigid thinking form and making it flow, can we overcome the limitation of modern thinking mode. Hegel called this dialectic of philosophical thinking as the true scientific method, it has no preconditions and conditions, it is to prove themselves, to complete themselves, with self-construction and the characteristics of self-creation, only this dialectical philosophy system, is the most spiritual and creative vitality. Therefore, dialectics is very important to Hegel's philosophy. On the one hand, if there is not enough depth of understanding to enter into this huge philosophical system, it is very likely to sink and not extricate themselves; On the other hand, dialectics is not only the method of Hegel's philosophical analysis problem, but also the objective law of things themselves, that is, the life, soul and development way of The method is not the external form, but the soul and concept of content. This dialectical way of thinking is the unique advantage of Hegel's philosophy system. In this respect, Marx pointed out: "Hegel's Phenomenology and its final achievement ―― dialectics, as the ―― of the negation of promoting principle and creation principle, first of all, Hegel regards human being as a process, regards object as the object, as the external and sublation. ”

Negation is another unique bright spot of Hegel's philosophy system. The cognitive thinking of modern philosophy always tries to adjust the antagonism between subject and object, in order to pursue the knowledge of certainty, to adopt a simple repulsion attitude towards the difference and contradiction between the two, thus choking the kind of living spiritual and life essence in the development of thinking. In Hegel's view, the thing itself is a unity that contains many attributes, which is the whole of self contradiction, self-denial, self-development and self creation. Engels commented that it was Hegel who discovered "a great basic thought, that the world is not a collection of things, but a collection of processes, in which all seemingly stable things are in constant flux of creation and extinction, as are concepts in our minds, and in this change, Despite all the superficial contingencies, despite all the temporary setbacks, the progress of the development will eventually achieve ―― this great basic idea, especially since the black, has become the general consciousness, so that it in this general form may not be objected to.

In other words, any kind of thing in the world is a process existence, in the course of its development, all kinds of differences and opposites, not the external differences, but the "intrinsic difference" of things themselves, "in one as the difference between the inner difference", the opposite side is actually within the things in the "unity of Opposites". In the view of modern philosophers, the self-denial of things means the disintegration of things themselves, because, in their opinion, difference and negation are some factors leading to death, they do not understand that the dialectical negation of the things themselves is precisely the source and vitality of their lives, It is this kind of negation that constitutes the internal impetus and development principle of the change and development of things movement. If this difference and self-denial are dispelled, things themselves will go to nothingness and death. It is by this intrinsic difference and dialectical negation that things are constantly moving towards rebirth and rebirth. The dialectical negation is the development principle that contains the affirmation, it is neither the whole affirmation nor the negation, while the negative content is negative and always positive content is affirmed. "The negative result is actually the content which produces from the negation, because it denies the previous content at the same time also has its content in the new form contained within itself, this causes the thing to develop to be higher, renews, the richer stage". Hegel called this dialectical Negation "sublation", that is, both to overcome and retain, both critical and inherited, it is both the link of things and the development of things, is the thing to achieve self-development, self-development of endogenous power. The negation becomes the core, the essence and the soul of Hegel's philosophy system, and he thus regards the whole development process as the organic whole with the intrinsic inevitability of mutual connection and self-development, which fundamentally transcends the thinking mode of the modern intellectual thinking.

In a word, the uniqueness of Hegel's philosophical system lies in the fact that the whole world is regarded as a process of self movement due to its inner contradictions, and this process is understood as a circle that makes itself and completes itself. He regarded his philosophy system as the entire encyclopedia of all truths, and thought that the whole philosophy history would end there. Hegel tries to start at any point and make it run through it, so that the starting point is the end. Hegel said: "Philosophy is independent, thus creating their own objects, to provide their own objects." And the direct view of philosophical beginnings must be transformed into the end point in the process of the philosophical system's exertion, that is, the final conclusion. When philosophy reaches its end, that is, when philosophy comes back to its starting point, it returns to itself. As a result, philosophy is just like a circle that returns to itself. "[2]385 originally, according to the dialectical nature of things, nothing is immutable, absolutely sacred, but Hegel is in his own philosophy system, formed a closed circle, so that philosophy to achieve the greatest ideals of science, to establish a so large and huge, Such a unified metaphysical system. Thus, Hegel made the metaphysical thinking go to the end, and for later philosophers to reverse the direction of philosophy to provide useful enlightenment. Hegel is controlled by his idealism system, attempts to exhaust absolute truth and let reason dominate the world, that the essence of things is a certain spirit, the history of the world is only the spirit of self deduction. This kind of thought looks exquisite, in essence it is only a kind of dream. This led to his thought both obscure and mysterious, all things are far-fetched to merge into the uniform of the three paragraphs, often criticized by later generations. Therefore, we should take a sublation attitude towards Hegel.

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Essay代写：The corporate concept of British universities

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- The corporate concept of British universities，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国大学的法人观念。近代英国大学法人观念的演变是英国社会结构变化的重要体现。中世纪时期英国大学法人受到教会法人、行会法人和日耳曼团体主义因素的影响。都铎王朝统治时期，尤其是宗教改革的进行使得大学法人观念剔除了教会因素逐渐向世俗化演进，大学法人最终成为学术性质的法人。近代英国大学法人观念的确立不仅推动了大学自身建设和独立发展，而且为大学实现自治和学术自由奠定了坚实基础。

The evolution of the concept of university legal person in modern Britain is an important embodiment of the change of British social structure. In the middle ages, English university legal person was influenced by church legal person, guild legal person and Germanic group. During the Tudor dynasty, especially the religious reform, the concept of university legal person gradually evolved to secularization with the elimination of church factors, and finally university legal person became an academic legal person. The establishment of the concept of university legal person in modern Britain not only promoted the self-construction and independent development of universities, but also laid a solid foundation for the realization of autonomy and academic freedom of universities.

The evolution of the concept of university legal person in modern Britain is closely related to the change of social structure in modern Britain. As the Tudor dynasty entered the stage of history and the religious reform was carried out, the English university legal person gradually removed the factors of the church and went to the secularization, becoming a real academic legal person. This paper intends to study the evolution of the concept of university legal person in modern Britain from the following three aspects.

This paper first collected the legal precedents of English universities' legal person status in the English case books, and viewed the disputes caused by legal person status in the common law of modern English universities from the perspective of legal practice experience.

In 1675, the king's attorney-general and st. John's college, Cambridge, v. Sir John Platt, Mr. John Platt, and Humphrey gregg basically stated that William Platt had in his will given 66 estates and some estates to st. John's college, Cambridge. After William's death, his brother and heir, Robert Platt, took possession of the land and property and said William's will was invalid because it did not correctly spell the legal name of the donee, st. John's college. The academy reached private settlements with Robert and the donor's father and other family members with inheritance rights. The court heard that the settlement violated the donor's wishes and was an affront to charity. Although the college that accepted the donation voluntarily gave up the original donation and reached a settlement with the defendant, it was still illegal. The court ultimately held that the college had the right to own the land and properties, and that the defendant should return them all to the college. In this case, the defendant took advantage of the fact that the donor's will did not correctly spell the legal name of the institution, thereby denying the legitimacy of the bequests.

In 1687, the case of corpus christi college of Oxford University resulted from the fact that the college was in the period of no dean when it received the donated land, so its legal status was not perfect and it could not accept the donation. In the same year, the basic case against queen's college, Oxford, was that queen's college had written its corporate name Proepositus Socii & Scholares Collegii reginalis in Oxonia, Gardianus Hospitalis while making a contract with a hospital. The plaintiffs argued that the tenancy was untenable because the institutional name of the institute was misspelled and that it should have been "Proepositus Socii & Scholares Collegii reginalis in Oxonia, gardiani Hospitalis". "Gardiani" is a Latin plural noun, and the plaintiffs argued that the college was a corporate body of people, each with rights. In the end, the court held that the lease itself was valid because the college, as a body corporate, had one body and one personality -- one body, as one person. Therefore, there was nothing wrong with the singular form of the noun in the corporate name.

In 1799, the university of Cambridge, Sidney Sussex college v. davenport said, "Dr. Craven, a scholar of Sidney Sussex college, together with the college corporation, lent money to defendant davenport as a joint creditor. Dr. Craven died and the defendant refused to pay the debt. The court found that the college had sealed the deed with the seal of the college's legal person, who was not going to die, and therefore the defendant was supposed to repay the debt.

In 1800, the town of Cambridge decided that the university and its citizens would share the costs of paving the roads, and a committee was set up to collect and administer the fees. According to the regulations, two-fifths of the cost of pavers will be paid by the university, and three-fifths will be paid by the citizens. According to the law, no taxes will be levied on farmland, grassland, pasture and arable land. Then downing college was founded, and the new college was located in the town of Cambridge, occupying a large area of land and property in the town. The part of the land occupied by the college which had originally been allocated to the town for the cost of paving the road now belonged to the college, so the cost of paving the road had to be redistributed and the town's share of the cost had been increased. Therefore, the issue of apportionment in the same way as before the establishment of the new college or reapportionment has become the focus of debate between the university and Cambridge town. After the court hearing, the judge held that the town was the legal person of the town and the university was the legal person of the university. The name "legal person" represented a changing legal subject, rather than a legal entity of a specific point in time. Therefore, when the college was founded, its properties and buildings no longer belonged to the town, but to the university. Therefore, the cost of paving roads needs to be redistributed.

The above five cases respectively represent the five factors that lead to the identity dispute of university legal person, which are also the five important characteristics of university legal person. College legal person is composed of a dean and a fixed number of teachers. Whether the noun in the name of university legal person is singular or plural does not affect the legitimacy of university legal person. The legal person of a university is not dead in theory, but exists indefinitely. University legal person is an ever-changing legal subject, rather than a legal entity at a specific point in time. These characteristics are the characteristics of modern British university law talent, then how modern university legal person is formed?

"In Britain, a corporation is a social organization with legal personality." As early as the concept of legal person in Roman law, but there is no legal sense of the concept of legal person. In Roman law, the state, autonomous cities, and religious and trade groups were considered societies. Regarded as an idea unit, it can only be established by obtaining the explicit authorization of the charter. Its basic principle is: "the 'association' composed of several persons, which has a purpose and is generally recognized as the subject of rights and obligations, and does not change according to the individual and its replacement. After the rise of Christianity, the legal concept of legal person was formally formed through church law. "Ecclesiastical jurists... In the concept of innovation and development... The Christian church is higher than the Christian individual and becomes an immaterial entity. This concept of a body with personality, combined with the concept of legal person that originated in Roman law, directly leads to the new clear concept of legal person in law -- the Christian church is a single legal person with personality. ... The juridical person in church law is increasingly becoming an anthropomorphic institution rather than a group of united persons. At the same time, "the idea of the collection of property as the subject of rights" was an innovation of the Christian church based on Roman law. This concept became increasingly clear with the development of the Christian church. "When anything becomes the property of the church by the will of god, though its right to use may be sold, its sovereignty -- except by a lawful gift -- cannot be forfeited over time." This means that church property belongs to church juridical person, and property right is one of the rights of church juridical person. These characteristics of the church corporation are transmitted to the university corporation. The rise of British universities was in the 12th and 13th centuries, British education historian John Prest once said: "Oxford University was born in the cradle of the church. The establishment of universities and colleges required the support of popes and Kings. Most scholars had the status of clergy and relied on this status to obtain a series of benefits and rights, such as church salaries, immunity from trial by secular courts, exemption from harsh taxes and military service. In medieval times, universities were considered part of the church organization. In a will giving property to the university, the donor wrote: "to all good christians, Ralph harmstley in the name of the savior of all." One of the conditions for the college to accept the donation is that "all the members of the college shall gather in the church of the college to pray sincerely for the honorable donor, Mr. Ralph harmstley... The academy will always pray for Mr. Ralph harmstley himself and his parents, his departed loved ones. The will of the groups also stipulates the specific prayer ceremony, director and senior academicians in Latin said "Anime Fundatoris nostri..." After that, the ordinary teachers would say "may the souls of our founder, Mr. Ralph harmsley, his parents and his relatives rest in peace". This shows that the faculty members also carry out clerical duties. Also, located in university and college libraries, most is derived directly from the medieval Abbey library, the museum collections in the majority with the Catholic church literature, "in 1550, Edward vi appointed a committee sent to Oxford and Cambridge, almost all of the library books as the Pope's data to be destroyed". All these prove the close connection between medieval universities and churches.

The establishment, organization and construction of a university are all influenced by the church. "In the university and the ecclesiastical community, even if all die one after another and another takes their place, the community remains the same forever", "because that right belongs to the church and remains in the church forever". The abbot, the monk, the priest, etc., is not the heir, nor is the President of the university, nor is the dean of the college, nor is the senior professor, etc. The university corporation has the personality and the characteristics of permanent existence.

The university legal person also has the nature of the guild legal person. The guild is autonomous, is granted special privileges, and holds the special seal of the legal person of the guild. The word universitas comes from the Latin universitas, which means "association". Medieval guilds were the basic organizing form of urban life, and teachers were also a profession. In order to safeguard the common interests, teachers and students formed an alliance to organize in the form of handicraft guilds. In 1191, students and scholars in Oxford began to call Oxford the "university", which means a group to protect teachers and students from persecution by citizens. As more and more people came to Oxford to give lectures and study, local citizens clashed with teachers and students, and in 1209 there was a great riot that almost ended the development of Oxford University. In 1209, scholars from Oxford came to Cambridge to teach in the town. Teachers and students in Cambridge town also encountered the same problems as those in Oxford town. The tension between the local citizens and the university's teachers and students finally led to a big conflict in 1381. The citizens attacked Cambridge university, looted the student dormitories and colleges, and burned a lot of literature and books, etc., which brought huge property losses to the university. The harsh external environment prompted the formation of allied guilds of teachers and students in Oxford and Cambridge towns. Medieval guilds required the support of a Pope or king. In 1213, the Pope sent envoys to Oxford University to settle the dispute between the university and the citizens, and decided to include the university under the protection of the church. In 1231 Henry iii placed the university of Cambridge under his protection.

Medieval guilds were an important source of the mode of university management and organization. Jacques Verger says, "the concept of community should be fundamental to the definition of a medieval university." The 13th century saw the emergence of the university degree system, which marked the internal ranks of students -- bachelor's, master's, and doctor's degrees. The teaching qualification certificate obtained by teachers is called teaching permit, without which they are not allowed to engage in this industry, which reflects the monopoly and protection of teachers' guild on the profession. The university had its own council, its common constitution, its corporate seal, its support by Kings and popes, its privileges, and so on, all of which testify to its guildlike character.

However, strictly speaking, among the four essential characteristics of the guild organization, the only one that the university legal person conforms to is the closed organization that enjoys the feudal privilege, which is mainly manifested in the monopolistic right of employment externally and the supereconomical mandatory management and supervision internally. During the Tudor period, English corporations were divided into three classes: public corporations, common corporations, and private corporations. University corporations do not seem to fit into any of these categories. In fact, since the legal system of England did not strictly distinguish public law from private law, the king issued a charter to the university of Oxford and the university of Cambridge, belonging to the artificial person, which is a collective legal person created by the charter.

Henry viii disbanded the monasteries in large Numbers, that is, the legal persons of religious nature were disbanded, and the universities with close ties to the church were also included in the reorganization. The two universities went on the road of secularization, and the royal power replaced the church as the ruler of the university. The power of the tudors increased and the king began to grant legal status to guilds and guilds to gain the support of secular forces. The king made the university a true secular corporation by way of law and re-charter. The secularization of university legal person brings many benefits, such as strengthening the autonomy, changing the organizational form and promoting the formation of college system.

The concept of university legal person in Britain also contains the element of Germanic group. "We find that the Germanic 'group personality, Shared by all members', is still alive and well in the history of British law." "The members of the plural can also be decomposed into the singular." In the case of queen's college, Oxford University in 1687, although the dispute appeared on the surface because of the singular and plural form of a noun in the name of legal person, the deep reason was the influence and role of Germanic group doctrine in the concept of English legal person. The transformation of the concept of university legal person in Tudor dynasty

At the end of the 15th century, the tudors came to the stage of British history. With the strengthening of royal power and the implementation of religious reform, "the king began to use charters to explicitly grant legal status to various social groups, such as cities, guilds or guilds, in order to strengthen the central control over the localities and in exchange for their support for the king". The concept of university legal person changed greatly in this period.

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