Civilizations and value 13 ( Second and Third period in Edo era )

In the second period, ancient studies arose as a reaction to the teaching of Neo-Confucianism. It may be said that this was the birth of humanism in Japan . Examples include Jinsai Ito *1, Ekiken Kaibara *2, and Sorai Ogyu *3, but there were also reactions from the Neo-Confucian system, such as Anzai Yamazaki *4 and Hakuseki Arai . Furthermore, the influence of humanism was not limited to Confucianism, but also led to the development of Japanese studies, such as the activities of Mabuchi Kamono *5. Furthermore, the influence of Neo-Confucianism on the masses can be seen in the emergence of Baigan Ishida *6's shingaku. As a reaction to Neo-Confucianism , there were also ideas such as Shoeki Ando 's revolutionary democracy .

 

*1　 Jinsai Ito did not serve as a government official throughout his life, but instead lived as an ordinary Confucian. They dismissed the commentaries of Zhu Zi and others as going against the ancient meaning of Confucius Meng, and directly advocated seeking the path of saints in the original s Confucius and Mencius. He is the founder of the Kogi school.

 

*2　Kaibara Ekiken  was a member of the Neo-Confucian school of thought, but his writings range from medicine to natural history. In his later years, he criticized Neo-Confucianism and developed a theory of rational monism in response to rational theory. This can be said to be a case in which the concept of knowledge in Neo-Confucianism was directed outward.

 

*3　Sorai Ogyu was the founder of the classical school of dictionary studies. He aimed to establish a new Confucian system through an accurate understanding of the Six Classics . He was the greatest thinker of the Old School, preached the separation of public and private life, and paved the way for economics.

 

*4 Anzai Yamazaki  created Suika Shinto, which was a combination of Yoshida Shinto and Neo-Confucianism.

 

*5  Hakuseki Arai was a Neo-Confucian scholar, but this is a case where the concept of knowledge in Neo-Confucianism turned to historical research. His book, Western Journal, was the beginning of the rise of Western studies.

 

*6 Mabuchi Kamono tried to revive the ancient path through research on the Manyoshu. He laid the foundation for Japanese studies.

 

*7 Baigan Ishida  adopted Shinto, Buddhism, and RoushiSoushi based on Neo-Confucianism, and advocated the establishment of commercial morality, preaching that merchants were no inferior to samurai in fulfilling their social duties.

 

*8 Shoeki Ando (physician) came from an upper-class peasant family, but he was a revolutionary thinker who completely rejected class-based society and Confucian-Buddhist ideology and advocated an ideal society in which all people worked and lived on their own.

 

　The third period saw the development of classicism, scientific thought, the separation of public and private life, and the development of economics that had occurred in the second period. However, classicism in Confucianism became less common , and Kokugaku reached its maturity under Norinaga Motoori  *1. Regarding scientific thought, Baien Miura  *2 and the appearance of many Dutch scholars are also a feature of the third period, including Genpaku Sugita  *3, Gennai Hiraga  *4, Ryotaku Maeno  *5 and Kokan Shiba *6. During this period, Dutch studies were in their infancy and began to spread as an academic discipline.*6 This period also saw the development of economics due to the influence of Sorai Ogyu 's separation of public and private life . Shundai Dazai *7, Seiryo Kaiho *8, and Toshiaki Honda *9 are some examples. Comparative cultural anthropological thinkers with a sharp critical spirit included Chuki Tominaga *10 and Banto Yamagata *11.

 

*1　Norinaga Motoori  investigated the true meaning of Japanese classics using linguistic and philological methods, harshly criticized the worldview of Confucianism and Buddhism, and affirmed humanity by emphasizing the compassion of things. Although it reflected a new civic consciousness, its idea of the divine kingdom and the idea of reverence for the king would be inherited by Restored Shintoism.

 

*2 In addition to Confucianism,Baien Miura  studied astronomy and Western studies, and advocated the study of reason as a kind of natural philosophy, and anti-viewing unity. It was a pioneering methodological awareness of empirical science.

 

*3 Genpaku Sugita was a medical scientist and Dutch scholar who translated Kaitai Shinsho and laid the foundations of Dutch studies.

 

*4 Gennai Hiraga was an inventor, naturalist, playwright, and joruri writer. Despite his versatility, he was not accepted by the world.

 

*5 Ryotaku Maeno was a medical scientist and Dutch scholar who was at the center of the KaitaiShinsho translation business.

 

*6 Kokan Shiba  was a Western-style painter and a Dutch scholar.

 

*7 Shundai Dazai  inherited the secular aspect of Sorai Ogyu .

 

*8 Seiryo Kaiho  was a  scholar on China and economic thinker. He looked at samurai's human relationships in terms of economic relationships.

 

*9 Toshiaki Honda  learned geography with Dutch books. He preached the necessity of trade and the importance of commerce.

 

*10 Chuki Nakamoto  was familiar with the scriptures of Shinto,Confucianism and Buddhism, and criticized the deterioration of religion and ethics. Known as a comparative cultural anthropological thinker.

 

*11 Banto Yamagata was successful as a merchant. He was a relentless critic of Buddhist beliefs and Shinto mythology. 

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Civilizations and value 12 ( First period of Edo era )

In Toynbee's view, a small number of creative rulers gain legitimacy , but lose it over time . The decline of civilization is portrayed as such a process , but the idea of the four periods mentioned above also suggests a way to analyze it by dividing it into smaller parts . In that case, the creative rulers are the leadership of the new social forces, and the legitimate rulers who have lost their creativity are the leadership of the old social forces. It may be possible to read it that way. In other words, it can be said that Spengler and Toynbee overlap in terms of internal value formation as well.

 

It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that the total period of these four periods does not necessarily correspond to the period of existence of the actual social order as a social force . This is because a part of the first half of the social forces and a part of the latter half were periods in which they were not actually ruling orders or ruling forces, but could be regarded as periods in which they were potential forces .

 

 

Forces and mentality in the Edo period

 

above idea of social order or social forces as a hypothetical model, I would like to take a look at Japan's Edo period, which became a typical example of a closed model due to its national isolation policy. In terms of history, the Edo period was a social order established from the establishment of the Edo Shogunate to the restoration of imperial rule , and its period of existence was from 1603 to 1867 . However, in this hypothetical model, the first of the four periods already began before 1603 , and the fourth period ended after 1867.

 

Let me explain the major flow. The first period began before the establishment of the Edo Shogunate. This is probably because the values of the Sengoku samurai, the Ikko sect, the Nichiren sect, and Christianity had a strong influence, and the posthumous value was high . At the same time, we saw the beginning of the wide spread of Neo-Confucianism by Seika Fujiwara *1. This continued with Razan Hayashi *2 's teaching of Neo-confucianism. Examples of the products of friction between old social forces and new social forces include Touju Nakae*3, Banzan Kumazawa*4, and Soko Yamaga*5. Keichu*6 is cited as the origin of Kokugaku.

 

*1 The academic style of Seika Fujiwara  was not simply Neo-Confucianism, but rather an inclusive academic style that did not exclude Rikuo's studies, but also incorporated Laozhuang and Buddhism, and was rather said to have been on the flow of Ming xinxing. .

 

*2 Razan Hayashi  made Neo-Confucianism the official science of the shogunate, and his descendants called themselves the Hayashi family and became Confucian officials of the shogunate for generations.

 

*3 Touju Nakae is a Yomei scholar  who valued filial piety and cultivated virtue , Farmers called him the Omi Saint.

 

 * 4 Banzan Kumazawa  adopted the strengths of both Shushi and Yomei studies, and argued that politics should be viewed from a practical samurai standpoint, and that policies should be formulated according to the actual situation by understanding the three aspects of time, place, and rank.

 

*5 Soko Yamaga was one of the founders of the classical school of thought, which opposed Neo-Confucianism and Yomei school and advocated a return to the principles of Confucius, and he also influenced later generations as a systematist of Bushido.

 

*6 Keichū was a monk of the Shingon sect and laid the foundations for Japanese studies. He had many accomplishments in classical commentary and Japanese linguistics.

 

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Civilizations and value 11 ( structure about the DNA of social order )

Let's take a brief look at each period. Let's first formulate a general hypothesis about what characteristics each has.

 

 What is the first period, childhood? 

The first period, childhood, overlaps with the prime years of the preceding social forces . In contrast to the mature wisdom of the preceding social forces , this is the time when the new , albeit infantile, ideals of the newly born social forces are giving birth . Therefore, in childhood, the mature culture of the preceding social forces and the young, yet youthful culture of the next social forces coexist. The quality of social psychology , or value, is formed through this interaction .

 

What is the second period, adolescence ?

The second period, adolescence, overlaps with the old age of the preceding social forces . The youthful ideals of the new social forces grow little by little as they meet reality . In contrast , the mature wisdom of the preceding social forces becomes rigid with age, declines , and at the same time becomes religious and philosophical. The new social forces are lyrical, and since they are not actually in charge of society yet, this is a time of great energy , where they become fanciful and dream of a new era .

 

What is the third period, the prime age?

The third period, the prime of life, overlaps with the childhood of the next generation of social forces . This time, the positions have changed, and the social forces that have gained power and leadership become the ones who criticize and suppress them. The next generation of social forces will be born under this protection , and will begin to grow little by little while receiving the protection of a mature economy amidst the stability of established social forces .

 

What is the fourth period, old age?

In the fourth period, old age, people become the ones who are overcome by the social forces of the next generation in adolescence. Philosophy and religion become accepted by established social forces . This phenomenon occurs because the social forces that have been dominant up until now tend to seek spiritual elements due to material saturation, and because of friction with the next-generation social forces that occur one after another . This is probably because they are trying to assert the legitimacy of their rule . On the other hand, the next generation of social forces in adolescence have continued to grow since their birth and are in the process of coming together as a group . At the same time, this is a time when the next generation of social forces will gain the legitimacy of their rule while being trained by the ideas * that established social forces have created amidst contradictions, as well as by external forces, such as ideas from abroad. .

 

 * Thoughts created amidst contradictions

Although the idea is to innovate and reform, a situation where the outer shell of the argument has a retro-like appearance is referred to here as ``thoughts created in contradiction.'' One example of this is the reform ideology that took the form of sonno-joi at the end of the Edo period.

 

What can be considered through these four periods is that multiple social forces exist in one period, each with its own life cycle. The infancy of one social force exists in parallel with the prime of life of another social force . Also, old age exists in parallel with adolescence, childhood in middle age, and adolescence in old age . Furthermore , it is believed that the psyches of the two social forces , old and new, that are occurring at the same time , influence each other and form trends and culture . These combinations may change slightly depending on the situation and time differences . This is because the length of each of the four periods can change depending on the situation. It feels somewhat similar to the double helix structure of DNA. It is, so to speak, the DNA of social order.

 

However , first of all , ① childhood (new social forces) - middle age (old social forces), ② adolescence (new social forces) - old age (old social forces), ③ middle age (old social forces) - childhood (new social forces) , ④ Old age (old social forces) - Youth (new social forces)

　　This pattern can be considered as the basic type. Based on these hypotheses and keeping them in mind , we can use them as a starting point for looking at complex and diverse phenomena . In the sense of the error from the starting point, it would be possible to use it in a way similar to Weber's ideal type.

 

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Civilizations and value 10 ( The rise and fall of social order in four eras )

However, in many cases, values are formed not only in an introverted sense, but also in an extroverted sense, and I think much of this can be explained by the mechanism of challenge and response. These two viewpoints are necessary as a minimum as a large frame. Rather than thinking about how these will be combined as a theory, the purpose of the first basic stage is to first see what can be seen by taking each perspective and to concretely accept what is seen. That is to say.

　

Changes in the life phenomena of civilizations in closed civilizations

 

From here, we begin to observe the introverted life phenomena of civilization in the style of Spengler . In doing so , it is first necessary to look for historical examples as appropriate materials . One such example is the ` ` change in mentality during the Edo period under national isolation . ''

 

The history of Japan from the beginning of national isolation (1636) to the arrival of the black ships (1864) can be said to be very close to the ideal of a closed civilization . For this reason , I would like to use this model to observe the process of change in biological phenomena, as it is a suitable material for examining the introvert model .

 

 However, as a first step , it is necessary to present a simplified model of changes in social order and mentality , and to explain the concept behind it .

 

Let me now write about Spengler's four periods of rise and fall of social organisms. Spengler divided the rise and fall of social order into four eras*1 : childhood, youth , middle age , and old age . This classification method was criticized by Toynbee and others for viewing civilization as an organism .*2 However, on the other hand, Toynbee held the idea that child civilizations are germinated from parent civilizations *3. If so, is it possible that these four periods could arise depending on the degree of overlap between the parent civilization and the child civilization? These four periods can also exist as basic models, and the theme from here is to take a closer look at their characteristics.

 

 

*1 The rise and fall of social order in four eras

Regarding the idea of four eras of rise and fall of social order, some researchers of Spengler have criticized that Spengler is only understood formally. ``Only what is extremely external can be understood.'' This opinion is probably influenced by Toynbee and others' claims that society is not an organism. There are various types of civilizations, and some are influenced by multiple outside civilizations, but even among these, it can be said that the simplest form of civilization has followed a relatively organic form. 

 

*2 Toynbee looked critically at this method of classification.

Society is not a living organism in any sense. He says that society is nothing more than a common basis for the actions of individual human beings who are living organisms. He held that it cannot be demonstrated that the social order passes through successive periods of life in the same way as humans do. However, Toynbee also says that civilization has a parent-child relationship in a different sense than society . If there is a parent-child relationship, it is possible that the timing can be divided depending on the relationship. It would be even more meaningful to look at each period in detail.

 

*3 Toynbee's idea of the embryo of civilization

 A distinctive feature of Toynbee's theory of civilization was that each civilization did not complete its life phenomenon independently, but that it conceived child civilizations along the way. They are the parent civilization and the child civilization. He also believed that there was an encounter between different civilizations before the birth of civilization. If there is an embryo, this will likely be the cause of overlapping generations between civilizations. Civilization and social order are not necessarily the same thing. Civilization can be said to be a series of several social orders linked together over time. But there may be cases where they match. This may be the case with Japan during the period of national isolation. In such cases, it is expected that there will be roughly four eras in the rise and fall of the social order. I believe that such a phenomenon can occur in the relationship between the old social order (played by preceding social forces) and the new social order (played by new social forces).

 

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Civilizations and value 9 ( introvert model and extrovert model )

There are reasons to think that Toynbee and Spengler need to be reevaluated. It is important that these two were born out of the great destruction of World War I and World War II . The world is about to enter similar waters of destruction once again, but it seems that little is understood about what these two men were feeling during this tense situation. At the time, there may have been a strong tendency to be seen as a downfallist . However, in modern times, it may be better to reinterpret these two as futurists . How are the values that define and determine the future formed? Two styles were offered. Toynbee 's theory of extroversion and Spengler's theory of introversion each followed different developments* . Another aspect that cannot be ignored is that these two intuitions were achieved through honed sensibilities * during the extreme tensions of wartime .

 

 *Different development

For Toynbee , it would be fair to say that external influences on civilization were a more important factor in the formation of values . There is a challenge ( I divide it into external forces and environmental forces ) as a force that activates civilization , and this influences the ability to self-determine and fight back . A creative leader emerges and the masses begin to imitate him, but over time the creative leader gradually deteriorates and becomes dominant, and in this process, empires and fighting groups emerge. In contrast, Spengler argued that the culture that naturally arose from rural areas would become civilization as cities developed, and that humans would lose their culture, become rootless, become empires, and eventually collapse.

In his later years, Toynbee began to mention the importance of world religions. On the other hand, in his later years, Spengler began to think about what the German state and society should be like . As a result, he began to think about Prussian socialism . In a sense, this can be said to be a product of introverted thinking . It's socialism that takes advantage of Germany 's efficient bureaucracy, and it may be reminiscent of current China in the 2020s . Spengler believed that socialism and scientific bureaucracy, rather than markets or capitalism, would develop nations.

 

*Sensitivity honed under stress

In wartime, it was difficult to know whether to win or lose, and whose values would prevail, making it difficult to know the way out. For this reason, many historical and cultural works seem to have been supported by deep thought. Around the time of World War II, Braudel was writing ``Mediterranean'' and Sartre was writing ``Being and Nothingness.'' It is also interesting that all of them were French people who were occupied by Germany. This can also be said of Japanese writers before and after the GHQ rule.

 

 

2 Life and destiny that integrate challenge and response

 

I have looked at Toynbee, an extrovert, and Spengler, an introvert, with reference to Jung's classification based on psychological posture . It may be necessary to combine these ideas , but even if you try to combine these two abstractly , it doesn't seem to make much sense , and it probably won't be very convincing . However, even if we lean toward one or the other, it is insufficient*, so we would like to use both viewpoints as a minimum . Try using these as tools to actually explain the situation.

 

In addition, the examples of culture, art, science, mathematics, and history that Spengler cited in his discussion of the decline of the West seem to be extremely difficult for non-Westerners to evaluate in order to explain the theory of internal formation of values.  For this reason, I would like to consider Japan's own culture, rather than Spengler's example, as the material for internal formation theory. With this in mind to some extent, I would like to think about Japan's future as a theme .

 

 ※insufficient

If we concentrate too much on introverted values, we will become too fixated on the phenomena of life and see value only in terms of fate. However, it seems necessary as a methodology to consider a model that is not influenced by external factors. By consciously choosing a closed model, you can think purely about the introvert model. This can be said to be the significance of observing life phenomena in a closed civilization.

 

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Civilizations and value 8 ( Toynbee and Spengler 's theory of civilization )

Weber's sensibilities include an ``ideal type'' way of thinking, a way of focusing on modernization theory, and a somewhat calculus-like perspective. The convenient genre divisions and classifications of economy, politics, administration, society, and culture are the same as in my theory of civilization, but they are nothing more than a methodology for analysis and synthesis. However, if we look at this categorization of economics, politics, administration, society, and culture from a different perspective, we can also think of it as a convenient classification of ``value space'' into categories. This can also be said to be related to the methodology for analysis and synthesis.

 

However, this so-called Toynbee-like theory of value formation may have a somewhat heteronomous feel to it . In addition to this , there may also be autonomous value formation theories that the civilization itself has. It refers to values that are formed in relation to the state of energy possessed by that ethnic group . These values also change over time. Also, among the things that make up these values are religion , art, and science , and Spengler was the person who intuitively understood that at the root of these are "common biological phenomena*." .

 

 *Common Life Phenomena

What has become clear is that a political problem cannot be understood from politics itself, and that the essential features operating deep within are often only found in the field of art... and even more so, This is what concretely manifests in the form of distant scientific thought and pure philosophical thought.

 

It can be said that Spengler wrote a number of things in ``The Decline of the West'' that were strange from the point of view of each expert .*1 However, in modern terms , AI　It can be said that he was discussing the ` `common life phenomena'' that exist in all things, such as religion, art, and science, in a way that turned the so- called deep learning method  on its head. He called it morphology , and said it was the last science of European civilization .

 

*1 From the perspective of an expert, he wrote a number of strange things in ``The Decline of the West.''

Spengler's evaluations of culture, art, mathematics, and history do not necessarily evaluate each field from an expert standpoint, so it seems that his evaluations are strongly biased. This element of bias can be said to be the essence of morphological interpretation. However, checking each and every one of them may be quite difficult for non-Westerners. This is why it is not expected to be efficient to use the example presented by Spengler when explaining autonomous value formation.

 

We looked at Toynbee 's theory ( challenge and response), which can be an external factor for values, and Spengler 's theory (common lifephenomena), which can be an internal factor .

 

There will probably be many opinions as to why Toynbee and Spengler 's theory of civilization is being used now . In fact, in recent years, it has been Huntington's work ``The Clash of Civilizations'' that has continued to have a major influence on civilization theory . Although the clash of civilizations has successfully explained * the situation in the real world , it seems that it has also become a fuel for values and ideas in itself.

 

*Explain real world situations well.

The population growth of Islamic civilization and the economic development of Chinese civilization in Asia gradually brought about tension with Western civilization. In contrast, Huntington believed that close cooperation between Europe and the United States would be essential to sustaining the hegemony of Western civilization. He also predicted that by 2021, the population growth in Islamic civilization would have slowed down. On the other hand, tensions caused by Chinese civilization are still rising.

 

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Civilizations and value 7 ( concept of values )

Chapter 2    Value 

 

１　what is value

 

In my previous two papers, ``Study on Civilization'' and ``Study on Quasi-Civilization,'' I have been thinking about the theme of civilization.

 

It focused on the `` life '' of civilization and quasi-civilization. I first tried to classify them based on their characteristics , and then looked at their life phenomena . However, simply looking at life phenomena in the past does not cover the conditions that constrain the present era . Classification and elucidation of life phenomena are extracted from past historical records. It is probably difficult to discover "value" in the present with just this , and it is also difficult to foresee the future .

 

The greatest benefit to be gained from knowing past records and history is to discover `` stable relationships among civilizations '' through classification and elucidation of life phenomena . However, it is difficult to discover where this civilization will head in the future just by discussing the various civilizations that have existed to date . What is attracting attention here is the concept of ``value,'' which can serve as an element and force that will define the future .

 

2　Value and time

 

In "Study of Civilization "“ Value is a function of time *”was defined as . This definition is too concise and can be confusing . This is mentioned in the section ``Civilization and Time'' in ``Study on Civilization .'' that explanation of what forms value was inspired by Toynbee's theory .

 

Values change , and first of all, ``challenges'' are presented depending on the conditions of each era . Some kind of value is formed because of this . In order to realize this value, a ``fight back'' will be held . In other words, value is a force that is given life and shaped by the challenges of the times. Each of these values influences ``technological efficiency'' and ``social structural strength . ''

In addition, in response to these forces , forces that repel are generated, and as they are synthesized, they form ``reaction forces'' and ``maintenance forces,'' and achieve self -actualization .

 

 *Value is a function of time

Let's define "value" as something that constitutes the reason for its existence, both soft and hard. This definition has nothing to do with the reason for human existence. First of all, it is better to think only about the software and hardware that surrounds human society. It is clear that the meaning of the existence of these software and hardware often changes over time, but on the other hand, it is also possible to consider situations in which they remain unchanged and maintain their original form, although they are washed away by the waves of change. . The proposition that value is a function of time may be thought of as another form of expression of the ``modernization theory.'' Modernization theory is the establishment of capitalism in the economy in Europe. Establishment of a democratic government in politics. Establishment of bureaucracy in public administration . The transition from Gemeinschaft to Geselfschaft in society. It is a shift towards rationalism in culture . This is typified by the ideas of Max Weber.

 

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Civilizations and value ６ ( about the idea of civilization group )

　I have briefly touched on the life phenomena of quasi-civilizations other than the four civilizations in ``Research on quasi-civilizations'' . When we look at these classifications of civilizations and individual life phenomena, we can also look at the individuality of each civilization, but that is not all. This is because I also want to think about these " collections of civilizations ." For example, this will lead to the view that things formed by the coming together of various civilizations can be considered a single form of life, like clusters of galaxies in astronomy . This is the idea of the so-called civilization group (a complex of civilizations formed by the gathering and combining of multiple civilizations and quasi-civilizations). Whether humanity can govern itself peacefully and eliminate the causes of war seems to be deeply related to this way of thinking .

  

What is the ideal state between the four civilizations?

 

It can be said that the most important purpose of classifying civilizations and elucidating the life phenomena of various civilizations is to arrange them under the condition of peace . I briefly explained an example of a diagram of this arrangement in ``Research on Quasi-Civilizations'' , but it seems unlikely that the four civilizations with moral systems will continue to clash repeatedly in their struggle for supremacy . I also thought that whether or not it is a democratic system may have an impact.

 

Therefore, in order to avoid such a situation, it is necessary for many quasi-civilizations other than "civilization" to strengthen their economic ties , and it is also necessary to have a great balance between these four civilizations and their separation and conflicts. 

　

As an example of such an arrangement , TPP (Trans-Pacific Agreement)* was mentioned in the ``Study on Quasi-Civilizations .'' The classification of civilizations and the study of their biological phenomena will serve as a kind of framework when considering how to proceed with such a sequence map . Each of these quasi-civilizations is a piece of the puzzle.

 

 * TPP　

The Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement is an economic partnership agreement signed between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. In terms of quasi-civilization classification, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are colonial-type quasi-civilizations, as well as Chile, Mexico, and Peru are colonial-type quasi-civilizations, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam are fusion-type quasi-civilizations, and Japan is frontier-type quasi-civilizations. This means that if Britain is added to this list, the number of frontier quasi-civilizations will increase.

 

In his ``Study on Quasi-Civilizations,'' I observed that the trend of multiculturalism was gradually moving northward from the southern hemisphere . The TPP is an agreement that encompasses Oceania, North America, South America, Southeast Asia, and the Far East , but in the future it is desirable that other quasi-civilizations such as Africa, the Far West, Eastern Europe, and Russia ( Eurasia ) be included and joined. Maybe. This encircles four civilizations that are divided , clashing, and only respecting their own moral systems and flaunting their influence . Then, such behavior will be regulated. How about thinking about the emergence of a ` `complex civilized organism,'' so to speak ? This means TPP plus other quasi-civilized alliances.

 

Regarding civilization, I came to something like a conclusion. Civilizations assert themselves and clash. For this reason, other quasi-civilizations cooperate to protect their own values, creating a form of encirclement around civilization. The idea is that by doing so, the actions of various civilizations will be restrained and peace will be maintained.

Let's stop thinking about civilization for a moment and start thinking about the other theme of this paper: value.

 

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Civilizations and value 5 ( civilization and hegemony )

3 　Civilization as it is

 

First, let's classify them by ideological type . By doing so , we will be able to pay attention to the various forms of life that exist in various civilizations. I have been thinking that I will be able to reflect on the state of existence . However, these civilizations are beings whose lives have been observed through formal classification . In a different sense from this , they are themselves subjects that act as life phenomena . Therefore, research that captures the true state of civilization is also necessary .

 

The classification of civilizations may be rather static . However, unlike the classification of plants and insects, civilization has  thick layers of time. Just as geological formations have a history and stories, civilizations also have a history and stories. In other words, in the case of civilization, even though it is called classification, it cannot be simply a formal or completely static science. Research that captures such biological phenomena will have aspects of dynamic research .

 

The four civilizations are formally classified as ``local civilization'' and ``cosmopolitan civilization .' ' Local civilizations are controlled and concentrated (or bandwagoning *when viewed externally) , and Chinese and Indian civilizations fall under this category . In ``Study of Civilization,'' I wrote that China had integrated through politics, and India had integrated through religion and culture .

 

In contrast, cosmopolitan civilization is decentralized and expansive, and European civilization and Islamic civilization have been considered to fall under this category . I assumed that chemical changes occurred due to contact between these cosmopolitan civilizations . In other words , Western civilization became the strongest due to the history and results of conflicts (war) and exchanges (peace) between European civilization and Islamic civilization . Capital accumulation and military commercialization occurred in European civilization . I believed that the strongest civilization, Western civilization, was born by combining these two elements . At the same time, these are the cancerous cells that are currently eroding peace and are a major issue on Earth.

 

*Bandwagoning-like 

Nations follow emerging powers, adapt to them, take a secondary or subordinate position to emerging powers, and expect their fundamental interests to be protected.

 

For a while after that , Western civilization was dominated by hegemonic struggles within itself *1. This has now turned into a struggle for supremacy , not just within civilizations, but between civilizations (the West and China) . In addition to the traditional struggle for economic hegemony, the United States and China are now beginning to recognize that there is a struggle for supremacy .

 

But will this situation continue? Will Chinese civilization be followed by Indian civilization, followed by Islamic civilization, and so on ? *2 Is the struggle for supremacy an inevitable form of life phenomena between civilizations ? If capital accumulation and military commercialization are the characteristics of Western civilization, which is rooted in a sense of scarcity, then a world dominated by Chinese, Indian, and Islamic civilizations may become a different world. Or perhaps these civilizations have learned capital accumulation and military commercialization from Western civilization. If that is the case, the struggle for supremacy will not be revised in the future . Nor will there be an end to proxy wars or civil wars in developing countries . Weapons will continue to be manufactured and sold . Is civilization as it is a world where the fittest survives, just like the animal kingdom? MacNeil used the concepts of micro-parasitism and macro-parasitism as tools to explain the transformation of civilization, but is that the whole world?

 

*1　 It was all about hegemony struggles within civilization.

Hegemonic control refers to the control of products, distribution, and finance, and the focus has shifted to Venice, Umbel, Genoa, Amsterdam, London, and New York. At one point, there was a momentum that Tokyo seemed to be taking over the hegemony, but unlike China, Japan did not step into the path of hegemony and put the brakes on it.

 

*2　 Will this situation continue , with Chinese civilization followed by Indian civilization, followed by Islamic civilization ?

Japan did not set out on the path to hegemony. Democracy had already pervaded Japan, and there was no intention at all of militarily to confront the United States. However, China seems to be different. Party rule is used to govern the country, but since it is not a democracy, it is impossible to let off steam and has no choice but to make external enemies. Compared to that, India is a democracy, so it may be less likely to move toward hegemony like China. Democracy has not yet fully penetrated Islamic civilization. It may be the Chinese civilization and the Islamic civilization that are most likely to be in conflict over a change in hegemony . However, Islamic civilization is still fragmented and may never emerge as a unified civilization like Chinese civilization. This is because Islamic civilization was a cosmopolitan civilization, just as it had always been.

 

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Civilizations and value 3 ( ways for different civilizations to coexist )

I have briefly explained civilization and quasi-civilization. First, we divided it into civilization and quasi-civilization . We have classified civilizations and quasi-civilizations within each category, but what is the meaning of classifying them in this way ?

 

The purpose of this classification is to understand what kind of "lifeform" each civilization is . The aim is to grasp the characteristics that lie at the heart of the life of that civilization . We are trying to look at civilization by the same way we look at specimens of insects and plants . Seen from this perspective, the extinct Inca and Aztec civilizations may be seen as ``living entities'' that have been killed (though there are still a few that survive) . Classifying civilizations is the first step in understanding each civilization as a living entity . This must also lead to thinking about how these things should be respected and preserved .

 

However, on the other hand, there will naturally be resistance to an approach that views civilization as life. Although it is not a civilization, the theory that society is an organism has long been rejected. Sociology uses the concepts of social structure and social change. Rather, it may be easier to explain it using the concepts of civilizational structure and civilizational change, borrowing concepts from sociology . And perhaps it is the sociological approach that is consistent with the five principles of civilization (value, technological efficiency, social structure, reaction force, external force/environmental force) mentioned in "Study of Civilization". 

 

The sociological approach is linked to industrialization and modernization, and has developed as a tool for analyzing European civilization. As parts of Asia have developed, sociological approaches have also evolved in the sense of examining this development. However, considering sociology's long history, it is like looking at a subject for a very short period of time (modernization in European civilization).

 

Seeing each civilization as a living thing seems to be related to having a perspective that also sees modernization in Europe as part of the life of European civilization. Isn't it more natural to think that there is something like life in the phenomenon of a civilization that declines and dies as a group, but then revives as a group and emerges? As a way to explore life, we will begin with the seemingly unremarkable task of collecting and classifying civilizations, much like looking at plants and insects.

 

 Let's reorganize the criteria for classifying civilizations.

 

【civilization】

　　Cosmopolitan type        1  European civilization

       　　　                            2  Islamic civilization

　　　　Local type               3  Indian civilization

                                　　       4  Chinese type

 

【quasi-civilization】

　　Colonial type　　　 　 5  Oceania type

                                             6  South American type or North American type

       Penetration type           7  African type

                                            8  Eurasian (Russian) type

       Frontier type                9  Far East type (Japan, Korea)

                                          10  Far Western type (Britain, Northern Europe)

       Fusion type                 11 Eastern European type

                                           12  Southeast Asia type

 

The details have been mentioned in ``Study of Civilization'' and ``Study of quasi-civilization.'' These classifications had the purpose of capturing the life of each civilization or quasi-civilization.

However, there was another major purpose. `` How should organic relationships , coexistence, and prosperity be achieved between civilizations ?'' In ``study  of quasi-civilization ,'' I attempted to explore ways for different civilizations to coexist .

 

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Civilizations and value 2 ( civilizations and quasi-civilizations )

However, there was one conclusion that was shown in ``Study of Civilization.'' Civilizations did not evolve through changes in the form of individual civilizations, but rather it was the relationships between these civilizations that gave rise to and evolved civilizations.

 

A typical example of this may be the relationship between Islamic civilization and European civilization. The relationship between these two civilizations resulted in the creation of the current Western civilization. In this relationship, the ``scarcity'' that remained at the center of the driving force of European civilization was overcome, giving rise to Western civilization's faith in military and capital.

 

This background in civilization theory may actually be the most important. The change in hegemony is also often discussed from an economic or capitalist perspective. However, capital and military forces cannot be established on their own. Elucidating this problem will be another important theme of this paper.

 

As with any civilization, there is a moral system that operates human society. And that becomes the standard of civilization. Among them, there were civilizations whose moral systems had influence across multiple nations. Here, we will specifically refer to such civilizations as ``civilizations,'' which are like stars having  the influence  to planets. Such civilizations include European civilization, Islamic civilization, Indian civilization, and Chinese civilization . These four civilizations are aggregations of humans who have had systematic morals in an international sense , and have influenced smaller civilizations in their periphery.

 

On the other hand, in the sense of " a nation , " this is a collection of humans that has its own moral system , and that has been greatly influenced by so-called "civilization." In this case, I will specifically refer to it as a "quasi-civilization . "

 In the ``Research on Quasi-Civilizations'', there were roughly four types of such quasi -civilizations .

 

　① Colonial type quasi-civilization, ② Penetration type quasi-civilization, ③ Frontier type quasi-civilization, ④ Fusion type quasi-civilization.　

 

Therefore , I proposed a method of classification .

 

Oceania and South America as “colonial quasi-civilizations” (North America may also be included)

Russia as “penetrating quasi-civilizations”

The Far East and the Far West as “frontier quasi-civilizations”

 Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia as ``fusion-type quasi-civilizations . ''

 

 Each quasi-civilization can be explained as an ideal type as follows.

A colonial type quasi-civilization is a civilization in which the influence of the colonizers was stronger than that of the natives, and an penetrating type semi-civilization is a  civilization in which the influence of the natives remained relatively strong over the penetrating civilization .  Frontier-type quasi-civilizations are those that were under the influence of civilizations (one of the four civilizations) on only one side , but on the other hand, their unique characteristics remained strong , and fusion-type quasi-civilizations are civilizations surrouned from multiple directions . It is a quasi-civilization that has been strongly influenced by several  civilizations(including quasi-civilizations) , but has also been created by overlapping these influences .

 

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Civilizations and value 1 ( classifying civilizations in terms of general concepts )

civilization and values

 

Chapter 1 　Civilization 

1  Idea type when thinking about civilization

 

I have continued to research civilizations and quasi-civilizations. In the study of civilization, I have mainly been thinking about the relationship between Toynbee's theory and civilization in terms of civilization and time. There was another character in the study of civilization. It's Spengler. I said that I would like to think about Spengler at a later date under the theme of civilization and values. Here we will think about civilization and values.

 

However, the translation of Spengler's "The Decline of the West" is difficult to understand (it must have been difficult to translate because the content is so diverse), and there are many things that are difficult for me, who is Japanese, to understand, including various issues in Arabic culture. It was too much. For this reason, I decided to set aside the ``decline of the West'' for the time being and, taking a hint from Spengler's perspective, explain the issue of civilization and values by selecting examples from Japanese cultural issues.

 

Now, before thinking about civilization and values, I would like to reconsider the concept of civilization. We have considered civilizations and quasi-civilizations, and the idea of these civilizations has been proposed in this series of research as a standard for classifying civilizations. Each of these concepts can be treated as what Weber called an ideal type * . By considering ideal types, it becomes possible to understand the appearance of each individual civilization (civilization, quasi-civilization) in more detail by comparing them with ideal types.

 

 *Ideal type

Key concepts of Weber's social science methodology. Ideal type is a methodological concept. It has the meaning of a purely ideological limit concept, by which we measure reality and thereby articulate a certain meaningful part of the content of our experience.

 

 

2    4 civilizations and quasi-civilizations

 

When it comes to civilizations , it seems that they were not often categorized by type or style, just like looking at specimens. However, up until now, each has probably been talked about as vaguely self-evident. Of course, there were other classifications based on the characteristics of civilizations*1.

 

In this series of research has been the classification of civilizations according to general concepts. In a sense, I wanted to exhibit civilization as a specimen. The point is, how can we explain the individuality of each civilization? Can it be expressed more clearly by using general concepts? That was a big pillar of what I wanted to do.

 

Let's briefly review how civilizations are classified. First of all , it can be divided into two major groups based on its morphological characteristics .

These are the four "civilizations" and many other "quasi-civilizations . "

The four civilizations were classified according to two general concepts, and the quasi-civilizations were classified according to four general concepts.

 

*1 There was a time when civilizations were classified based on their individuality.

Toynbee's ``study of history'' introduced the concepts of civilization such as parent civilization, child civilization, stunted civilization, and miscarried civilization. In addition, the existence of 21 other civilized societies was proposed. However, it can be said that these 21 civilizations were classified not by general concepts but by their individuality. Civilizations are named by proper names, such as Egyptian civilization or Andean civilization. In other words, he has directly captured the individuality of the civilization he is observing. However, in that case, only one civilization exists, and there is no similarity between each civilization. This will not create empathy or relationships. Understanding and classifying civilizations in terms of general concepts rather than unique individualities is the first step in building empathy and relationships. In other words , it can be said to be an attempt to categorize civilizations using a method similar to Jung's typology.

 

*2 Morphological

In Spengler's ``The Decline of the West,'' the idea of viewing civilization as a form emerged. However, it can be said that this is not the form of a solid, but rather the change of a solid over time as a form.

With this in mind, at the very beginning of the classification, we roughly divided civilization and quasi-civilization. I did this because I believe that there will be differences in the way they develop in form.

Whether a ``civilization'' develops or declines, it will continue to influence smaller civilizations around it. In contrast, "quasi-civilizations" will continue to have their own moral systems, but will continue to be heavily influenced by "civilizations." At the center of this influence is the ``moral system'' of ``civilization,'' and depending on whether this is broad or narrow, we can call it civilization or quasi-civilization. Therefore, the equation `` civilization '' = ``moral system = religion'' can be said to be the central theme of civilization theory.

 

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Civilizations and space 10 (European civilization's taste )

Some people think that European civilization is characterized by collecting, but European civilization was pushed out into the Atlantic Ocean by Islamic civilization pushed out by the Mongol Empire. In response to Spain's dispersal of the wealth gained in the New World within Europe as military expenses, European countries that pursued mercantilistic policies accumulated capital in order to strengthen their military power. It led to the industrial revolution. the scale and duration of the war may have been a precursor to the Industrial Revolution. And it may be that the taste for capital accumulation has not changed since then.

 

Capital accumulation led to excess production capacity, which led to world wars, but in the process leading up to it, attention was also focused on consumption (Keynesian), but the question of whether consumption was really necessary remained, and the economic scale of developed countries alone remained. Demand will eventually become saturated, and even if technological innovation enables new lifestyles and creates new demand, it will not be as strong as it used to be, and the unproductivity of the public sector will become a problem (although it may not be so in Nordic countries). Demand has become a matter of quantity rather than quality, with urbanization and rising living standards in developing countries becoming a large core part of demand as quantity, but also for developed countries. Export industries and overseas expansion have become a lifeline for economic growth. In this way, cosmopolitan civilization was connected to globalization through capital accumulation, but it may be fair to say that this is creating friction with the existing system of the state.

But where did European civilization's taste for capital accumulation and military power come from? Was it not from want? At this point, let us conclude our spatial consideration of civilization.

 

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Civilizations and space 9 ( European cosmopolitan civilizations expansion )

The Reformation coincided with the growth of sovereign nations, but Protestants and Huguenots adopted mercantilism through commerce and industry in order to oppose Spain and its background, Catholicism, and worked to foster sovereign nations. However, combined with the development of military technology that accompanied the ever-increasing scale of warfare, it developed differently from other civilizations and led to the accumulation of capital. Braudel and Wallerstein saw the formation of capitalism in the upper strata of the market and the hegemony that moved to Venice, Anvers, Genoa, Amsterdam, and London, but security was brought about by strengthening military power. As a result, industries developed, capital was accumulated, and the capital was used militarily and economically to strengthen and expand the state itself (developmental cycle).

 

At what point in time did the incident that made us realize this cycle occurred? It was a "capitalist invention" for the economic management of the Italian city-states, and had a great influence on Spain and France, which fought over Italy. Wasn't it the Netherlands, where capitalists had acquired a base in Spanish territory, at the time of the start of the War of Independence (1568) from Spain, which imposed heavy taxes? The Fugger family fell (due to the influx of silver from South America and the bankruptcy of Philip II, etc.), and Italian cities began to fall along with the Old Church, but Spanish Jews moved to the Netherlands, which was the base of capitalism. As it was established, it instigated rebellion against Spain in various parts of Europe and fought against Spain. And the Dutch era begun, which was maintained by fomenting conflicts between sovereign nations*, but it led to the Second Hundred Years' War between France and England, and the Netherlands joined Britain in the Glorious Revolution. maintained life expectancy. Ultimately, however, the Netherlands, like the city-state of Venice, was occupied by Napoleon because of its lack of military power, and it was Britain, a sovereign state, that won the Napoleonic Wars.

*The Treaty of Westphalia is said to have ended the medieval system (Holy Roman Emperor, Pope) and created an unstable system in which sovereign states existed side by side. It was able to secure a commercial area (Baltic Sea), and in the process of narrowing down the number of sovereign states, it was united with Great Britain. The process of Dutch union with England is reminiscent of the process of Britain's union with America.

 

Holland, Britain and the United States ruled the world by sea and later by air, but when empires on land and in Eurasia joined forces,  China, Russia, Iran and the EU became an axis, the age of the maritime nations would change. It might come to an end. If that was meaningful prosperity for mankind , Japan would be forced to make a serious choice. The meaning of this would depend on whether we could correct the disparity in wealth and whether we could create a system that surpasses democracy to achieve the former goal.

 

The capital accumulated by the British Industrial Revolution was invested within European civilization, bringing about the second industrial revolution in Germany and the United States, and the capital was accumulated again, and this time it was invested in civilizations other than Europe, leading to the age of imperialism. became. A global oversupply caused two world wars, but it ushered in the Cold War era, controlled by two major powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The collapse of the Soviet Union has ushered in an era of America's unipolarity. America tried to control the world (it took over the world's consumption), but there were twists and turns. It seems that they have tried to solve it by increasing the consumption power of the surrounding two major civilizations plus alpha. It is the construction of a large consumption area in Asia that responds to the increase in supply capacity in response to capital accumulation, and we have entered an era in which resource, food, and environmental problems are the premise of this. In the future, the periphery connecting China, India, Indonesia and Oceania may become the center of the world*2.

 

I have been thinking about the relationship and transition between Islamic civilization, which was a cosmopolitan civilization, and European civilization. Islamic civilization could be said to be the first full-fledged cosmopolitan civilization in history, but it expanded spatially further when it was temporarily taken in by the Mongol Empire. Rather, there is also the idea that the Ottoman Turks, the Safavid Dynasty, and the Mughal Empire were greatly influenced by the Mongols and Turkey ＊. These empires, however, were not conscious of accumulating capital, as their creations shew. The empire followed the path of agricultural civilization, exhausting its surplus, deteriorating finances, and excessive tax collection alienating the interior and destabilizing the exterior.

 

*Mongol and Turkish influence on the Ottoman Turks, Safavid Dynasty, and Mughal Empire

These regions were, albeit temporarily or partially, subsumed by the Mongols, and were basically empires established as military states through the development of artillery.Safavid Dynasty  was a kingdom created by the Shiites (Twelve Imams) who did not appear openly. On the other hand, the Ottoman Turks were Sunnis who emphasized the ulama, and the Mughal Empire was strongly influenced by philosophers and Sufis. It may have leaned towards extreme mysticism when the empire was established, but as the empire stabilized, each of these three kingdoms began to show their individuality. The Safavid dynasty was a renaissance phenomenon of Shia Islam, but for the sake of rule, Abbas the Great gradually restored the authority of the ulama. The Ottoman Empire in the west was an empire that aimed to expand to the west, which was unusual for an Islamic empire. The janissaries and others consisted of residents from the European side and occupied a key position in the government (Devsirme). But for law, he used ulama heavily. The Ottoman Turks possessed the characteristics of the conquered Turkic peoples and used the Gazis heavily, but they maintained a cosmopolitan civilization by placing various conquered peoples in the right places. In that sense, it seems that they learned a lot from the Mongol Empire. The Mughal empire in the east used many Persians who had fled from the Safavid dynasty in power, and the influence of the Shiites was strong.  Such a situation combined with a philosophical trend led to the advocacy of a new religion during the reign of Emperor Akbar, but the Sunni sect revived during the reign of Aurangzeb, and the Mughal Empire entered turmoil.

Looking at it this way, the Ottoman Empire was influenced by Sunni and Turkish civilization, while the Safavid Dynasty was a rebirth of Shiite Islamic civilization against Mongolian and Turkish civilization, and the Mughal Empire was a Sunni and Persian civilization. It may be said that it was the Indian (Hindu) rule of a conquest dynasty with

 

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Civilizations and space 8 ( Capital accumulation in Islamic civilization )

From the world system of Mongolia, the Ottoman Turks (1299-1922), the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), and the Mughal Empire (1526-1858) returned to the cosmopolitan civilization by Islamic civilization. It was at its peak. During this period, European civilization was nearing the end of the Italian Renaissance, and Spain became a powerful force, and capitulation*1 was established between France and the Ottoman Turks, but this was an inequality that would later be tied to Asian countries. It became the model for the treaties. The characteristic of this cosmopolitan civilization of Islamic civilization was that the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were Sunnis, while the Safavids were Shiites. In the Ottoman Empire, administrative rule by the Qadi developed *2, while in the early days of the Mughal Empire there was also Shia influence *3, which led to the emergence of mixed religions *4 during the era of Emperor Akbar at its peak. . The Safavid dynasty reached its peak during the time of Abbas the Great, but by this time it had become pluralized*5 and prospered through trade, but was destroyed by Afghanistan.

 

*1 Capitration Freedom of residence, freedom of trade, and non-violation of residence within Turkish territory were confirmed for non-Muslims (France was the first). After that, it led to  extraterritoriality and the abolition of tariff autonomy.

 

*2 In Ottoman Turkey, kadis (judges) were selected from the ulama (a class of scholars in Islamic society) in the central and rural areas and conducted trials based on Shariah (law).

 

*3 Bayram Khan, the prime minister of the Mughal Empire who served Emperor Humayun and raised Emperor Akbar, was a Shiite, and was trying to rule under Shiite leadership.

 

*4  mixed religion

The arguments of the orthodox Islamic theologians, who were proud, narrow-minded and obstinate in their way of thinking, turned his mind away from Islam, and in 1582 he (Akbar) made a kind of deism that blended various religions to be founder of the "Religion of God" (Dine Ilahi).

 

*5 The Safavid dynasty was a Shiite dynasty, but during the reign of Abbas the Great, Isfahan was the capital, and various races such as Indians and Armenians lived and traded there.

 

The Ottoman occupation of Constantinople in 1453 and its subsequent expansion into the Balkans (culminating in the First Invasion of Vienna in 1529) indirectly led to the discovery of the New World by Spain, which was at the western edge of European civilization. (1492) and Portugal's expansion into the Indian Ocean (Vasco da Gama, Pioneering the Sea Route to India 1498), but it also turned the attention of Italian cities, which were strongly linked to Islamic civilization, to the Atlantic Ocean.  Venice, which was tied to the Byzantines, faced the threat of the Ottoman Turks, while Genoa's rise to prominence may have something to do with Genoa's investment in Spain and Portugal.

 

Even in the Mongol Empire, the accumulation of capital ultimately did not progress due to wasteful spending, but as in the case of Samarkand, which prospered in the Thamur Empire after that, although it cannot be called capital, there was some kind of urge to accumulate in Asia. It may have existed in successive empires as well. Capital accumulation in modern European civilization, however, was neither the Suleymaniye Mosque in the Ottoman Empire, nor the capital of Isfafar in the Safavid dynasty, nor the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire.

 

It was accelerated by the fact that gold and silver sent from the New World America gathered in Seville, Spain, and were scattered throughout Europe through trade and religious wars. The accumulation of capital had begun even before that (Fugger and Medici families), and the development of weapons and the development of mines had a lot to do with the accumulation of capital. It changed from a battle between city-states to a battle between nations and growing sovereign nations, but in the end it turned into a conflict between sovereign nations, Spain and France*. European civilization in this era did not only traded, but also destroyed, and used its wealth to develop weapons. It was a mercantilist to generate military spending, and the navy was the key to defending trade in Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and England, and it was possible to hold the trade zone only if the materials for warships and artillery could be secured. Hegemony moved from Holland to England, where the Industrial Revolution blossomed.

 

* 1492: Columbus discovered the New World, 1517: Start of the Reformation, Conflict between Spain and France over Italy, Dutch War of Independence, 1588: Battle of England and Spain. In 1571 Spain and Venice defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Treaty of Westphalia (1648), Puritan Revolution (1646), Glorious Revolution (1688), Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) (Turkey cedes Hungary to Austria), but Spain held great power until the Treaty of Westphalia. However, the frequency of their interventions was probably more frequent than in the United States today . Fifty years after the Treaty of Westphalia, the Ottoman Empire also began to decline.

 

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