Civilizations and space 8 ( Capital accumulation in Islamic civilization )

From the world system of Mongolia, the Ottoman Turks (1299-1922), the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), and the Mughal Empire (1526-1858) returned to the cosmopolitan civilization by Islamic civilization. It was at its peak. During this period, European civilization was nearing the end of the Italian Renaissance, and Spain became a powerful force, and capitulation*1 was established between France and the Ottoman Turks, but this was an inequality that would later be tied to Asian countries. It became the model for the treaties. The characteristic of this cosmopolitan civilization of Islamic civilization was that the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were Sunnis, while the Safavids were Shiites. In the Ottoman Empire, administrative rule by the Qadi developed *2, while in the early days of the Mughal Empire there was also Shia influence *3, which led to the emergence of mixed religions *4 during the era of Emperor Akbar at its peak. . The Safavid dynasty reached its peak during the time of Abbas the Great, but by this time it had become pluralized*5 and prospered through trade, but was destroyed by Afghanistan.

 

*1 Capitration Freedom of residence, freedom of trade, and non-violation of residence within Turkish territory were confirmed for non-Muslims (France was the first). After that, it led to  extraterritoriality and the abolition of tariff autonomy.

 

*2 In Ottoman Turkey, kadis (judges) were selected from the ulama (a class of scholars in Islamic society) in the central and rural areas and conducted trials based on Shariah (law).

 

*3 Bayram Khan, the prime minister of the Mughal Empire who served Emperor Humayun and raised Emperor Akbar, was a Shiite, and was trying to rule under Shiite leadership.

 

*4  mixed religion

The arguments of the orthodox Islamic theologians, who were proud, narrow-minded and obstinate in their way of thinking, turned his mind away from Islam, and in 1582 he (Akbar) made a kind of deism that blended various religions to be founder of the "Religion of God" (Dine Ilahi).

 

*5 The Safavid dynasty was a Shiite dynasty, but during the reign of Abbas the Great, Isfahan was the capital, and various races such as Indians and Armenians lived and traded there.

 

The Ottoman occupation of Constantinople in 1453 and its subsequent expansion into the Balkans (culminating in the First Invasion of Vienna in 1529) indirectly led to the discovery of the New World by Spain, which was at the western edge of European civilization. (1492) and Portugal's expansion into the Indian Ocean (Vasco da Gama, Pioneering the Sea Route to India 1498), but it also turned the attention of Italian cities, which were strongly linked to Islamic civilization, to the Atlantic Ocean.  Venice, which was tied to the Byzantines, faced the threat of the Ottoman Turks, while Genoa's rise to prominence may have something to do with Genoa's investment in Spain and Portugal.

 

Even in the Mongol Empire, the accumulation of capital ultimately did not progress due to wasteful spending, but as in the case of Samarkand, which prospered in the Thamur Empire after that, although it cannot be called capital, there was some kind of urge to accumulate in Asia. It may have existed in successive empires as well. Capital accumulation in modern European civilization, however, was neither the Suleymaniye Mosque in the Ottoman Empire, nor the capital of Isfafar in the Safavid dynasty, nor the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire.

 

It was accelerated by the fact that gold and silver sent from the New World America gathered in Seville, Spain, and were scattered throughout Europe through trade and religious wars. The accumulation of capital had begun even before that (Fugger and Medici families), and the development of weapons and the development of mines had a lot to do with the accumulation of capital. It changed from a battle between city-states to a battle between nations and growing sovereign nations, but in the end it turned into a conflict between sovereign nations, Spain and France*. European civilization in this era did not only traded, but also destroyed, and used its wealth to develop weapons. It was a mercantilist to generate military spending, and the navy was the key to defending trade in Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and England, and it was possible to hold the trade zone only if the materials for warships and artillery could be secured. Hegemony moved from Holland to England, where the Industrial Revolution blossomed.

 

* 1492: Columbus discovered the New World, 1517: Start of the Reformation, Conflict between Spain and France over Italy, Dutch War of Independence, 1588: Battle of England and Spain. In 1571 Spain and Venice defeated the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Treaty of Westphalia (1648), Puritan Revolution (1646), Glorious Revolution (1688), Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) (Turkey cedes Hungary to Austria), but Spain held great power until the Treaty of Westphalia. However, the frequency of their interventions was probably more frequent than in the United States today . Fifty years after the Treaty of Westphalia, the Ottoman Empire also began to decline.

 

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Civilizations and space ７ ( the expansion speed of Civilizations )

Regarding the formation of a cosmopolitan civilization, the rapid expansion of the Mongol empire must have had a major impact following Islamic civilization. In terms of rapidity, its speed was comparable to the rise of Islamic civilization with the appearance of Muhammad*.

 

*Arab empire expansion chronology and Mongol empire expansion chronology

The expansion rate of the Arab empire

630 Muhammad captured Mecca

632 Muhammad died, Abu Bakr became caliph.

634 Umar became caliph.

636 Battle of Yarmouk (victory against the Byzantines)

637 Battle of Kadeisiyah (victory against Persia)

642 Battle of Nihavand (victory against Persia)

661 Umayyad dynasty established

 

The Islamic powers formed the framework of the Arab empire in only five years after Muhammad's death. And Muwawiah, who later founded the Umayyad dynasty, was the son of Aboosfyan, a former enemy of Muhammad. It took almost 30 years after Muhammad's death to form the Umayyad dynasty.

 

Expansion rate of the Mongol Empire

1206 Mongol unification

1219 Western expedition begun

1227 Genghis Khan died

1234 Ogotai destroyed Jin

1236 Batou begun western expedition

1253 Flag started the west expedition

1279 Yuan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty

 

The expansion speed of Mongol forces may had been a little slower than the expansion speed of Islamic forces. Over the course of three generations, the Mongol empire expanded. The Southern Song Dynasty did not perish even after about 30 years from the death of Genghis Khan, but Ogotai destroyed Jin in seven years after his death, and it can be said that the Mongol Empire was established at this point.

 

Just as the expansion of Islamic civilization was due to the seizure and expansion of commerce, it seems that the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire was also the reason for this. Mongolia was based on advanced Islamic civilization, and China (Yuan) did not rely on Chinese civilization either. The Uyghur merchants and Muslim merchants were entrusted with economic management. The Mongolian imagination is clearly connected to modern China's "One Belt, One Road" initiative. Cosmopolitanism in the Yuan and Mongol empires was not necessarily based on religion in Islamic civilization. However, as the Il Khanate, the Kipchak Khanate, and the Chagatai Khanate became Islamic nations, their position was expedient and their religions were pluralistic. However, in places like China, which had a unique civilization, it seems that there was a strong resistance to being assimilated into Islamic civilization, and in the Yuan dynasty, the royal family became inclined to Lamaism, and this was one of the reasons. Although it was originally tilted as one, there seems to be a slightly deeper meaning here*. It is in the sense of the essential difference between Islamic civilization and Chinese civilization.

 

*Il Khanate, Kipchak Khanate, and Chagatai Khanate eventually adopted Islam as the state religion, but in the Yuan dynasty it was changed to Lamaism. Lamaism had a strong shamanic tinge and was very similar to the mental state of the Mongols. On the other hand, in the Chinese civilization, which was later destroyed by the White Lotus sect, the intellectuals were Confucianism, the masses were Buddhism and Taoism, and the economy was controlled by Islam. In the later conquest dynasty, the Qing dynasty respected Confucianism, which is the morality of the elite of Chinese civilization, as a pose to some extent, whereas the original viewed Chinese civilization lightly and at the same time wanted to make his own mental state a religion as it was. It seems that there was. While the other three khanates faced a universal ummah, a social community called the Islamic community, the Yuan faced (from the Mongolian's point of view) no universality. It seems that the veneration of Lamaism was a countermeasure against Chinese civilization, which tended to assert itself strongly, and the dependence on Lamaism became stronger with the decline of the Yuan Dynasty.

 

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization in Europe had, to some extent, a spontaneous element. During the First Crusade, Europe made contact with the Seljuk Turks and the Fatimid dynasty, but European civilization in this period was under the power of the Roman papacy, moving from decentralized feudal rule to consolidation. It was also the era when nations began to emerge*. The economic situation of the Byzantine Empire remained as a trading power in the Mediterranean, but it gradually weakened and was replaced by Venice and other Italian cities. This papal system adopted Latin as a common academic language, and established new cosmopolitan universities in theology and law. In the Middle Ages, monasteries and knightly orders cleared the land, and they played a central role in expanding the territory of European civilization.

 

*Participation in the Crusades

1st Crusade (1096-99) Occupied the Holy Land in 99. Kingdom of Jerusalem established.

2nd Crusade (1147-49) organized by German and French monarchs, failed.

3rd Crusade (1189-92) Ayyubid Saladain captured holy land. Organized by Germany, France, and England. Pilgrimage permit agreement only.

The 4th Crusade (1202-1204) did not go to the Holy Land, conquered Constantinople, and established the Latin Empire.

The Fifth Crusade (1216-1221) attacked Egypt and failed.

6th Crusade (1228) Frederick II of Germany secured the Holy Land through diplomacy, which was recaptured by the Seljuk Turks.

7th Crusade (1248-54) Louis IX of France attacked Egypt and failed.

Eighth Crusade (1270), Louis IX of France attacked Tunis, canceled due to King Louis dying of illness.

 

The Crusades took place from 1096 to 1270, about 200 years, during the time of the Popes. In the first half, the influence of Germany: the Holy Roman Emperor was strong, but in the second half, the influence of France was becoming stronger. The Byzantine Empire, which was a trading nation, was taken over by France and Venice (Latin Empire), and Genoa tried to revive Byzantine. Meanwhile, the conflict between the pope and the emperor continued, reaching a peak at the time of Frederick II, but the power of the emperor declined and the power of France, which had allied with the pope, increased. What emerged throughout the Crusades was the rise of the Italian city-states, the rise of the British and French centralized states, the decline of the power of the popes and emperors, and the Black Death due to trade during the 14th and 15th centuries. 1346-1350) spread throughout Europe, and the Hundred Years' War between England and France (1339-1453) prolonged the life of the Italian city-states. 

 

The cosmopolitan characteristics of Islamic civilization began with a religious community (Umma), passed through the tyranny of the Abbasid dynasty, and was shaped and expanded by the gradual universalization of the spiritual world and the separation of the secular state (9th century). In contrast, in European civilization, a spiritual society was formed out of resistance to the secular society (from the activities of the Cluny Abbey to the struggle for the right to sanction), and the Catholic Church, a religious organization responsible for a robust spiritual world, emerged. In the midst of the chaos caused by the invasion of foreigners, I have the feeling that the ``secular society that had been separated'' was entangled in a net. , and as a result, a cosmopolitan civilization was formed. Even if we call it a cosmopolitan civilization, it seems that the formation process of Islamic civilization and European civilization was greatly different. .

 

The influence of the Mongol Empire was added to both Islamic civilization and European civilization, but the development and expansion of Mongolia for the European civilization sphere initially took the northern route that avoided Islamic civilization ( Lubrok and  Marco Polosfather traveled). The cosmopolitanization of European civilization was partly influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of Islam, but it may be said that it was more influenced by the cosmopolitan civilization of the Mongol Empire. This is because, in the next era, the Age of Discovery, when he traveled around the Cape of Good Hope and headed for Asia, he hoped that there would be a country of Prester Jhon*, and a vast amount of goods would be found beyond Islamic civilization. It was possible to recognize that India was in Southeast Asia within the Mongolian world system, and the major motivation for the activities of the merchants was to use the trade network established during the era of the Mongol Empire. Isn't it (the discovery of the new continent was a by-product of that)? In addition, the spread of the Black Death, which has driven European civilization into a miserable state, originated in the port of Kaffa (Kipchak Khanate) in the Black Sea, and was brought to Genoa by merchant ships. can be said to have received

※Legend of Saint John

A legend believed in Western Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries. It was said that there was a Christian priest king in Asia, and Pope Alexander III and King Louis IX of France sent envoys to attack Muslims.

 

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Civilizations and space ６ ( Civilizations and Early Modern Renaissances )

8 Islamic Civilization Versus European Civilization

 

According to Ichisada Miyazaki's theory of the Renaissance, the Early Modern Renaissance first occurred in West Asia in the 9th century, followed by the Chinese civilization in the 10th century, the Early Modern Renaissance in the Song Dynasty, the Crusades in the 12th century, and the world domination of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Later, the early modern Renaissance arose in 14th-century Europe.

 

As for how to understand the early modern period and the Renaissance, the period before that was the Middle Ages, and while the Middle Ages was the period of the nobility, the early modern period was the period of the common people, and the Middle Ages was the period of religion. On the other hand, the early modern period was an era of commerce, and I thought that the restoration of humanity in the classical revival was a phenomenon related to that. Ichisada Miyazaki saw the phenomenon of economic development empowering the common people and forming a culture based on the common people as a Renaissance phenomenon.

 

The cosmopolitan policy initiated by the Umayyad dynasty must have been behind the early modern phenomenon in the Islamic civilization. The unification policy of currency and language (Arab) by Abbul Malik (AC. 685-705) is that.  Economic prosperity created the culture of Muslim commoners, and here again led to the rediscovery of Greek culture.

 

Seen in this way, the teachings of the Qur'an are rich in cosmopolitan elements, such as the teachings of monotheism, the idea of the Ummah*, and the idea of contracts . It provided an opportunity for unification in West Asia, and took time to promote unification. At first, it was a form of politics and tyranny, but through the reorganization of customary laws, social unification was gradually promoted.

 

※Umma  

Muslims were commanded, as their first duty, to build a community (ummah) in which wealth was equitably distributed and compassion was practiced. This was far more important than any doctrine about God.

 

The situation in West Asia spilled over into Chinese civilization as refugees from Sassanid Persia fled east under the Islamic offensive. Internationalism in the Tang Dynasty overlapped with this, but after the Tang and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the aristocratic society collapsed, and in the Northern Song Dynasty, when the Shidaifu  rose to power, Chinese civilization entered the early modern period and a renaissance emerged, according to Miyazaki. I thought about it. If "Renaissance" means the democratization of society, then yes.

 

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, something new was born, and the whole of China was about to become a unified market*, and the Northern Song Dynasty was a period of economic development. It was also an era of technological innovation and three major inventions (gunpowder, compass, and woodblock printing). But it would be difficult to make it as cosmopolitan as Islamic civilization. However, at that time, Chinese civilization itself was a world, and it may be possible to call this a cosmopolitan.

 

*All of China is a unified market 

From the Song dynasty to the middle of the Qing dynasty, China's economy was in the Grand Canal era, with the population concentrated along the Grand Canal and huge commercial cities developing. The Grand Canal was the trunk line for domestic transportation, and the natural rivers that intersected with it became large and small branch lines, forming a nationwide transportation network.

 

During the Northern Song Dynasty, the nomadic peoples around them gained strength and strengthened nationalism.  Islamic civilization and European civilization are characterized by their expansion through religion, and in that sense Chinese civilization has shown unique movements. Even in the Ming dynasty, which seems to be a repetition of the same era as the Song dynasty,* except for the era of the Yongle emperor, Chinese civilization has shown a stance of restraining expansion.

 

*Chinese History of the Ming Dynasty, like a repetition of the Song Dynasty

The history of the Ming dynasty has many parts that repeat the history of the Song Dynasty in particular.The Ming Empire that Taejo predicted would be a nation-state like the Song Dynasty, and the colonies where different races live would be a burden, so it was unnecessary. And from being a single nation state, isolationism was born .

 

Although it is religious, it is a characteristic of Indian civilization that it did not show a very expansive attitude, just like Chinese civilization. Although there was an aspect of development overseas, we can see that Indian and Chinese civilizations were self-contained through material or spiritual fulfillment within their own civilizations. There was a period of overseas expansion, but it may have been common, especially in Indian civilization, for the wealthy to withdraw from economic activities and retire. There seems to have been a morality different from the accumulation of capital in later European civilizations.

 

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Civilizations and space 5 ( comparison between Indian civilization and European civilization )

The establishment of a cosmopolitan civilization was also seen in the Roman Empire, but it declined along the way. The next establishment would be the emergence of Islam, the Islamic civilization (9th century) established after passing through the orthodox caliphate, the Umayyads, and the Abbasid dynasty. The Indian civilization (5th century), which was founded by Hinduism, may also be applicable, but although the productivity of the Indian civilization was large, commerce declined, probably because of the reduction in world trade. The situation in this area was similar to that in medieval Europe, but it was probably a decline due to the destruction of cities and commercial infrastructure due to the invasion of foreigners while the despotic power was weak. Just as Islamic civilization established its cosmopolitan civilization through the rise of the Mamluks, the Sultanate system, and the Iktar system, Indian civilization may have tried to incorporate the Rajputs, but the Rajputs are fragmented and  It may be said that a cosmopolitan type of civilization was established in India by adopting an Islamic civilization after the Delhi Sultanat .

 

Similarly, in medieval Europe, tyrannical power was weak, so invasions of different peoples were repeated. However, the development of civilization differed from that of Indian civilization because, for a long time, the Byzantine Empire had become a powerful wall that prevented the invasion of Islamic civilization, and Roman Catholicism was in opposition to Greek Orthodox Christianity, which led to the organization of the church. Probably because I made progress. Western Europe grew as a cosmopolitan civilization that valued Catholic doctrine. In Western Europe, Latin became the academic language, and the development of church architecture was very similar to the development of Hindu temples, where Sanskrit became the lingua franca of Indian civilization. .

 

During the Middle Ages in Western Europe, which was the germ of future civilization, the Byzantine Empire protected it from Islamic civilization for a long time. In the case of Indian civilization, Rajput (an invader from the perspective of Indian civilization), and the collapse of the Pritihara dynasty, which was part of it, caused the invasion of Islamic civilization (Kazni dynasty). Moreover, within Indian civilization, Hinduism was not as centralized and organized as it was in Western Europe. However, due to the strong hierarchical structure, it was not unified and was ruled by the conquering dynasty of Islamic civilization for a long time.

 

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