Essay代写：Municipal bonds

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- Municipal bonds，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了市政债券。市政债券又称为地方政府债券，由地方政府或其授权代理机构发行，所募资金主要用于城市或地方基础设施建设，有时也用于弥补市政当局的费用支出和税收收入之间的季节性或暂时性失衡。允许地方政府发行债券，是实行分税分级财政体制国家的普遍做法。当地方政府税收收入不能满足其财政支出需求时，地方政府可发行债券为基础设施建设及公共产品筹资，地方政府债在其财政收入及债券市场体系中都占有重要地位。

For many emerging market countries, including China, the exploration of municipal bond issuance can pave the way for the sunshine and marketization of local government financing. In foreign countries, especially in highly developed capital markets of the United States, has been running for a number of municipal bond issuance and management, therefore, how to draw lessons from international experience, establish management specification, run efficient mechanism of debt financing of local government and local government investment and financing system, and establish the corresponding risk prevention and control system, is worth our discussion.

Municipal bonds, also known as local government bonds, are issued by local governments or their authorized agencies. The funds raised are mainly used for urban or local infrastructure construction, and sometimes to make up for the seasonal or temporary imbalance between municipal expenses and tax revenues. Allowing local governments to issue bonds is a common practice in countries with separate tax and fiscal systems.

When local governments' tax revenue cannot meet their fiscal expenditure needs, they can issue bonds to finance infrastructure construction and public goods, such as the UK, the us, Germany and Japan. Local government bonds play an important role in their fiscal revenue and bond market system. At present, the development of local bond market has also become the policy focus of newly industrialized countries, emerging market countries in transition and some other developing countries.

Since the mid-1990s, there has been a clear trend in the global market to supplement the bank-dominated financial system with the accelerated development of financial markets, and the proportion of local or municipal bond markets in the global market generally shows a rapid development momentum.

In developing countries, urbanization, decentralization of central and local governments, and reduction of fiscal deficits are three important components that affect the basic trend of economic development. The investment and financing and credit system of local governments are closely related to the above basic trend, and thus become the most basic factors in the development strategy.

While investment demand growth, investment and financing responsibility should be more from the central government to local governments, local governments must improve the efficiency of resource utilization, strengthen the budget management of local government, to guide the private sector investment in public services and infrastructure investment, and the use of local government bond markets, and promote the development of local government bond market is very important.

The United States is the country with the earliest and largest development of municipal bonds, and municipal bonds account for about 20% of government debt. Its market-oriented development model and regulatory system have been relatively perfect.

From the perspective of risk monitoring framework system to establish, in order to prevent and control the debt risk of local government, the United States gradually formed on the basis of laws and regulations, with the core of information disclosure and scale control, credit rating and dissolve the risk early warning, crisis as the means of risk monitoring framework system, at the government level provides effective municipal bonds to prevent systemic risk source sex.

The scale control indicators of the above systems mainly include debt ratio, debt bearing ratio and asset-liability ratio, etc. In terms of credit rating, rating agencies mainly consider the following factors: the issuer's overall debt agency; The ability of the issuer to maintain a prudent budget policy; The fiscal revenue position of the issuer, including the relevant tax situation and the dependence of local budgets on specific revenue; The overall socio-economic development of the place where the issuer is located; Local government risk early warning indicator system and financial monitoring plan to timely judge whether the local government is in a financial emergency; The crisis resolution mechanism includes the federal government's emergency financial assistance program, in which the ministry of finance helps local governments facing debt repayment crisis pay off debts to resolve the crisis. At the same time, when the local government enters the financial emergency, it can increase the government revenue by raising taxes and fees and guarantee the debt payment to solve the crisis.

It is worth mentioning that the United States did not establish a sound municipal bond risk management system at the beginning, but gradually established and improved in the long-term development and practice process.

From the emergence of municipal bonds in the United States in the 19th century to 1975, the municipal bond market was basically in a blank stage. The securities act of 1933 exempted the government as the main body of municipal bonds from complying with the relevant regulations on the issuance of corporate bonds by enterprises, and the issuance and transaction of municipal bonds were only subject to the anti-fraud provisions. In 1975, the municipal bond default in New York state promoted the establishment of the regulatory system. Congress created the municipal securities rule making committee to manage the underwriting and trading of municipal bonds, and brought the brokers and dealers in the municipal bond market under the supervision of the securities exchange act of 1934. As an industry self-regulatory body, MSRB specializes in drafting regulatory proposals, which have been reviewed by the SEC and become law.

After 1989, the supervision of municipal bonds in the United States was more focused on information disclosure. The SEC issued relevant regulations, requiring continuous disclosure of financial status and issuer information. The market self-regulatory organization -- securities dealers association was responsible for the supervision and regulation of municipal bond dealers and proprietary trading departments. In 2007, NASD merged with the New York stock exchange regulatory commission to create finra with specific functions. The U.S. financial crisis in 2008 forced the federal government to legislate to strengthen the regulation of municipal bonds in the 2010 dodd-frank act. Self-regulatory groups have also laid down rules for disclosure, including the American association of municipal bond analysts and the American association of government finance officials.

The above multi-level market supervision system, which is composed of government administration departments and industry self-regulatory organizations, is worth learning from. As far as China is concerned, the more urgent problem is to improve the risk management system of municipal bonds.

Domestic currently focus on the debt risk of local government financing platform, and the credit risk and financial risk guarantee, should draw experiences and lessons from the foreign debt risk management and crisis management, establish a multi-level index system of the government debt risk early warning and crisis resolution mechanism, transformation of local government debt risk to the financial risk and financial risk of the transmission chain and even the trigger condition of the debt crisis in-depth discussion and attention. We will control the hidden and overall debt of local governments and reduce the risk of default on local government bonds. Should determine the government debt risk threshold is a complicated system engineering, should be based on such as economic structure, economic growth and benefit index, residents' income distribution and consumption level, the market system development degree, the degree of financial deepening, the Treasury bond market development situation, the financial revenue and expenditure situation, the government management efficiency, the cost of debt structure and benefit situation, fiscal and monetary policy objectives into account.

In local government bonds on the threshold of development, must improve the local government debt risk management mechanism, Suggestions from municipal bonds issue pricing, trading, repay and supervision each link strict rules, including for the control and issuance of creditor's rights, market access restrictions, the credit rating system, the construction of information disclosure system, management and evaluation of investment projects, the establishment of the market liquidity to reduce investment risk, regulatory coordination as well as the improvement of the legal framework.

With the development of municipal bond market and the continuous innovation of financing tools, it is certain to promote the establishment of a multi-level capital market system, give full play to the multiplier effect of investment, and reduce local fiscal and financial risks through the improvement of the debt paying ability of debt issuing subjects and the improvement of relevant legal supervision system.

It should be said that the coordinated development of multi-level government bond markets will be meet the requirements of fiscal financing, the lower bank system risk concentration at the same time, dispersion and absorb the impact of the financial crisis, as fiscal policy and monetary policy coordination has provided a broad platform, to improve fiscal transparency and elasticity of the financial system, maintaining financial stability has a far-reaching influence.

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Assignment代写：Environmental education in American schools

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- Environmental education in American schools，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国学校环境教育。美国一直将学生的身体健康和学校环境健康作为健康教育的出发点，学校环境教育是保证学生和教师具有高质量的教育和学习生活的重要力量。华盛顿学校环境教育也为其他地区树立了榜样，健康的学校环境有利于节约能源与学校运营成本。培养学生批判思维和创新技能，减少损害环境的不良行为，使学校朝着可持续的健康校园环境发展。

School environmental education concerns the health of students and staff. School environmental education is an important force to ensure the healthy and sustainable development of schools. The Washington, d.c., school environmental education format provides a reference for schools to promote environmental protection and student health.

The United States has always taken students' physical health and school environmental health as the starting point of health education. School environmental education is an important force to ensure students and teachers have high-quality education and learning life.

Research by the world health organization confirms that the school environment has a significant impact on the health of students and staff and on the success or failure of implementing school health education programs. The United States is the first country to carry out environmental education. It has a relatively complete legal system and various educational plans to ensure the smooth development of school environmental education.

The d.c. The act makes a special mention of environmental education in schools. These include school garden programs, health and environmental literacy programs, and green campaigns.

Washington school environmental education takes green campus as the concept and realizes the benign development of the school through all-round practical education. Environmental education encourages wide participation of people both inside and outside the school, and values mutual support between the community and the school.

The program was set up by the office of education oversight in Washington, d.c. OSSE provides horticulture courses for schools, guidance and training by experts, and technical and financial support for the programme.

The garden project includes the school's application for garden registration, application for project funds, technical support and professional development. The school first applies for registration, fills in the garden project related information, establishes a project communication and the support channel. The office of education supervision provides technical support for horticulture guides, school garden models, system design and project management.

The garden project also provides teacher training for garden teachers and a one-year garden course for interested teachers. At the same time, a monthly meeting on the theme of school garden was held to solve the problems related to the construction of school garden. The district now has 93 school gardens.

The program was launched in July 2012 as part of the Washington government's effort to create a healthy environment for schools and communities in the region. To enable students to acquire knowledge and skills to solve health and environmental problems and become managers of a healthy environment.

A systematic environmental curriculum is planned from kindergarten through grade 12. Develop students' environmental knowledge, attitudes and skills to make informed choices about environmental protection and to manage the relationship between urban development and the natural environment. Carry out outdoor practice experience; , can analyze the surrounding environment information, and find out the key problems; Take action to protect the environment. The course takes nature as the material and adopts the methods of "natural education", "natural learning" or "outdoor education" to build up the consciousness and emotion of harmonious coexistence between human and nature.

K-12 environmental literacy courses. Each student shall participate in at least one outdoor environmental education activity per school year. Access and download environmental resources and complete assignments. Ability to integrate and create environmental strategies.

Increasing environmental education and training for teachers. Supporting environmental education services for teachers, environmental education seminars and training. Conduct community environmental service practices and promote dialogue between educators and community residents.

Integrate environmental literacy into secondary school curricula. We will increase the environmental science curriculum for senior high school students, and make students' participation in community environmental services an indicator of their graduation.

Establish an environmental literacy assessment system for students. Collect information on students' environmental literacy knowledge scores. Create activities to assess students' environmental literacy. The environmental literacy of students is integrated into the comprehensive evaluation system of students.

The school is equipped with certain environmental facilities to support students' outdoor learning experience. Encourage and help schools to apply for the U.S. green ribbon school certification program.

To coordinate the coordinated implementation of the plan by the government and non-governmental organizations. To coordinate relevant organizations and institutions in the special zone, divide their respective responsibilities and scope of work in the implementation of the plan, and cooperate to complete the environmental literacy training plan.

The Washington department of the environment conducts various forms of environmental advocacy for students, teachers, and residents. Help people correctly deal with the relationship between personal behavior and the surrounding environment, and take responsible actions to prevent environmental damage.

Green publicity for students: aquatic resources education, so that students understand the resources of wild aquatic animals, master how to protect and use aquatic resources; Energy education, which enables schools to visit energy projects related to the environment department of the hksar to understand and learn how to save energy; Through hands-on learning, students explore the surrounding natural environment through outdoor activities and participate in community environmental service projects.

For educators, there are environmental education seminars and training. Teachers exchange experiences and learn how to better guide students in dealing with complex environmental problems. Seek better method to integrate own environment teaching practice. The hksar requires teachers to attend relevant environmental education seminars in their spare time to promote their professional development.

School environmental education can promote the construction of green schools, improve school infrastructure, create more job opportunities, promote the green development of school teaching system and operation, and save money. Cultivate students' awareness of environmental protection, so as to prepare for the construction of green economy.

Environmental education in Washington schools sets an example for other areas to improve the living conditions of their communities. A healthy school environment helps to save energy and school operating costs. Develop students' critical thinking and creative skills, reduce harmful behaviors that harm the environment, and make the school develop towards a sustainable and healthy campus environment.

From a higher level, school environmental education is conducive to saving and storing precious natural resources, strengthening regional and national energy security, and contributing to the healthy and sustainable development of regional social economy.

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Essay写作得做好Revising和Editing

很多留学生都抱怨过辛辛苦苦写作的Essay最后拿的分数很低，但同学们有没有想过其中的原因呢？其实这都是留学生没有做好Revising和Editing的原因。要想让Essay拿到一个好分数，那么在submit之前我们一定要做好Revising和Editing。

Revising是你完成Essay之后应该做的第一步。Revising并不意味着要查看语法或者拼写错误，这些工作应该是在下一步editing中完成。Revising应该将整个Essay视为一个整体，对Essay进行修改使之更为流畅。

Step 1：检查论文结构

阅读你的Essay，并且重点关注文章的结构。举一个比较夸张的例子，如果是写一篇介绍三明治制作过程的Essay，如果你在最后一个body paragraph提出准备三明治的材料，那显然是不合适的。

你可以通过多种不同的方式来架构你的Essay，常见的Essay结构包括：

-时间顺序

-逻辑顺序

-主题顺序

选择哪一种论文的结构应该在写作的第一步Prewriting期间进行。outline可以帮助你用有条理的方式撰写Essay。在你修改Essay的时候，你可能会发现outline的结构在逻辑或者时间上存在一些问题，这就是我们需要修改Essay结构的原因所在。

Step 2：检查文章是否流畅

下一步就是检查Essay表达是否流畅。单独检查每个段落，确保句子之间连贯通顺。换句话说，你希望读者能够轻松地阅读全文，不需要中途停顿下来。

解决这个问题的一个简单方法是过渡词。 有很多过渡词可以帮助句子之间的相互连接。常见的过渡词有：

-And

-Also

-Afterward

-Of course

-Then

-Therefore

-Ultimately

-In other words

类似的过渡词还有很多，但是我们想要表达的重点是，当你想将一个句子的想法与前一句话联系起来时，你需要使用这些词语将句子串联起来。

比如，表示同意：

I jogged to the store to catch up with my friend, who I’d spied driving down the road. Strangely enough, she didn’t turn the car off when she went inside.

表示不同意：

My dog sat languishing in the sun to warm up after being in the cold air conditioning. Be that as it may, I don’t like him to get too hot, so I brought him back inside.

Step 3：注意quote和example的使用

确保Essay流畅的另外一种方式是确保每个quote，paraphrase，summary和example都有很好的介绍和解释。

如果你告诉你的读者，这句引用来自于哪个作者，并且在引用之后加上对它的分析和解释，那么你的读者可以保持一个很好的阅读节奏。有人把这种策略形象地称作quotation sandwich。

-introduction of quote/paraphrase

-The quote/paraphrase itself

-Analysis/explanation

举例：In his article on salads, Sam Sifton of the New York Times says, “[Julia’s] recipe for simple vinaigrette may anyway change your life for the better, forever.”Vinaigrettes may be known for lacking the creaminess that traditional salad dressing has, but Sifton pushes us to give them another look.

做好了上面的几个步骤，下面几步就属于Essay editing。Editing是一些微小的调整，这个步骤可以确保你的Essay表达正确并且易于阅读。

Step 4：检查论文格式

不管是什么形式的Essay，都需要遵循某种引用格式。最常见的引用格式是MLA格式和APA格式。但是也需要注意不同的老师会有不同的要求。比如可能不同的老师对引用格式的版本要求不同。所以在上交论文之前，需要再检查一下Essay格式。一定要注意细节，比如页边距、字号、标题是否居中等等。

Step 5：避免口语化的表达方式

学术写作的语言非常正式，除非一些creative writing的作业可能会允许出现口语化的语言，其他的论文都需要使用正式的表达方式。避免使用“ain’t”或者“man” 这样的表达方式。同时，学术写作应该避免使用缩写。

仔细阅读你的ESSAY并寻找这样的表达方式，你可以大声把文章读出来，或者让别人来读这篇文章，帮助你找到这些问题。找出这些问题之后，需要用正式的术语来替换。

Step 6：检查语法

做editing的时候要注意的事情之一是正确的语法。虽然语法规则有很多种，以下这几点可以说是最常见的语法规则：

-Subject-verb agreement 动词和主语一致

-Verbtense consistency 动词时态一致性

-Plural agreement 名词单复数

-Pronoun agreement 代词指代一致

Step 7：检查标点符号

最后，Essay修改润色最基本的工作就是确保标点符号的正确使用。逗号的使用比较常见，以下是最常见的逗号使用方式：

-Comma before a coordinating conjunction 并列连词前使用逗号

-Comma after an introductory phrase 介绍性短语后使用逗号

-Comma before a quote or after it, depending on its location in the sentence 直接引用前后使用的逗号

-Comma in a series of items 一个列表中的逗号

以上就是关于Essay写作如何做好Revising和Editing的方法，在这个过程中，有很多细节需要注意，所以同学们得擦亮眼睛。

想要了解更多英国论文写作技巧或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有英国代写、essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写。亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多关于英国代写以及英国留学资讯，我们将为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有英国代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

Paper代写：Hunter notes

本篇paper代写- Hunter notes讨论了《猎人笔记》。屠格涅夫是一位优秀的、享有世界声誉的俄罗斯现实主义作家。屠格涅夫的第一部现实主义巨著《猎人笔记》由二十多个独立成篇的故事组成，每一个故事都在讲述农奴在俄罗斯所面临、所感受、所看到的一切。因此，作品的主题也别具一格，有着作品本身的特色。在书中残酷的、窒息人性的农奴制度下，这些俄罗斯农民虽然性格各不相同，却又互相补充，体现了俄罗斯农民卓越的创造才能和美好的精神境界。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。

The serf in Turgenev's works is not a man who has no thought and no soul as a "labor tool" by the landlord. But each character image represents a class of advanced Serf's image, after reading each piece can let the reader see a bright, give the reader with enlightenment.

Some serf hunters represent advanced farmers, live a more independent life, have ideas, have a mind, understand the meaning of life, have life goals. In Hall and Karinech, the author portrays two serf-images of Hall and Karinech, two distinct models. Hall is a different peasant image, he is short, but very strong, bald, long with an old man's face, "very much like Socrates." Not only does he care about the things around him, but he also cares about politics and the world; "and Karinech, contrary to him, is an ideal family, a romantic, a fanatic and a visionary." Karinech is close to nature, and Hall is close to man and society. "He has a variety of talents, singing, playing, reading and writing, will read the hemostatic mantra, will cure, proficient in the common people difficult to learn the beekeeping-although he is a serf, but in front of the owner without any servile state."

In "Lone wolf" an article to the reader to introduce a forest Forma Kuzimich image, nicknamed "Lone Wolf." He was very law-abiding, faithful to the landlord, he was honest, he was always meticulous in his work, and he did everything according to the law. But also not blindly obey the orders, according to the rules of affairs, they also have ideas, know different people, let a person very admire. In the woods he guarded, no one could take anything, not even a branch. But the forest-keeper is indeed for serf, so others dislike him, and do not associate with him. But he is not as unreasonable as other people think. He knew what caused the theft, so there was a sympathy for the robber in the depths of his heart, and the robber and his horse were released.

These serfs are, in some ways, more or less admirable. In some chapters, Turgenev describes the plight of Russian peasants under the serf system, which has a certain revelation and critical effect on serfdom. On the one hand, Russian farmers have a rich spiritual world and creative power, on the other hand, they are in bondage and the destruction of the right to status, this very disproportionate and very contradictory situation "clearly confirmed the abolition of serfdom" Turgenev in this show his anti-serfdom ideas. In short, "Hunter notes" in the description of serf life, but also mainly express their simplicity, purity, good nature and rich spiritual world.

In the "Hunter's note" This work mentioned many kinds of prey such as rabbits, especially snow rabbit, the author of a large number of pen and ink on the Snow rabbit deep description of the snow Rabbit timid ' limping ' on the edge of the woods quietly walking ... The hunter killed a snow rabbit with a gun, the Hound brought it back, and the hunter cut the snow rabbit's leg down to feed his hounds ... "The slaughter of Turgenev, which lists so many prey, shows that the Turgenev has a wealth of knowledge and experience in this field." The authors also mention a variety of birds that can be prey, and the author's description of bird capture can be nuanced.

There are only a few fishes in the book, The Big head. "There are countless fish in the Ehtar River, but most of them are the biggest, and the farmers are able to catch the fish in hot weather by squatting under the bushes." The above discussion shows that Turgenev is not only a great writer, but also an outstanding hunter.

Hounds can be said to be hunting scenes by hunters. They are very loyal to their owners, regardless of how the host treats them, they will not abandon the owner. Hounds can catch prey that hunters cannot reach and prey that hunters cannot see. Turgenev's description of the quality of the hounds is intended to show the serf's loyalty to the landlord, just as the hounds are to the hunter. The Hound is the embodiment of Yelmole, the book mentions that Yelmole never feed his dog, but he must take it when hunting scenes, no matter how it hunts. This is a powerful proof that Russia is a country with a deep hunting culture.

In Turgenev, the hunting scene shows people's life, activities of the place, giving people the enjoyment of beauty.

In "Yelmole and the Housewife," the author of such a delicate description of the natural scenery on the Ehtar River "this narrow river twists and turns, the shape of the snake body, the whole river is not half-Russian straight." Some, looking down from the hills of Qiaoba, can see about 10 of the dams, ponds, mills, gardens in the Russian valley, surrounded by firecrackers and lush orchards.

"The kite, the Green Hawk, the tea Falcon are flying under the still treetops; the Mottled Woodpecker pecked at the thick bark; the chirping of the Blackbird and the Chaijan of the song from the Oriole, the robin, the with and the warbler in the low undergrowth, and the songbirds running and jumping on the path; the Snow rabbit timidly Limping ' on the edge of the woods, walking quietly; the reddish-brown squirrel was lively in the woods and picked it up, and suddenly the tail cocked up and sat down. This also shows that Turgenev is very good at observation, only in this way he can describe the movements of these birds nuanced.

All these descriptions of scenery can give the reader a kind of beautiful enjoyment, the author's description of the hunting scene is not just for hunting, but in our previous impressions, hunting was brutal, and the hunting ground was shocking, with the bodies strewn with animals and the poor little animals who fled in the harsh gunfire, and in the Hunter notes, Turgenev's hunting Ground scenery description is full of poetic and romantic flavor, people feel very quiet and peaceful, it seems not in the hunt, but the gossip of the walk, this aesthetic feeling let people charmed.

There are contradictory dual personalities in Yelmole. Yelmole is a old-fashioned hunter. "But Yelmole is also extremely good at avoiding the danger of scatter and gunpowder spreading or mingling, and his agility is often surprised by onlookers." His gun is a single barrel, with Flint, with a ' recoil ' force of a particularly large temper. So Yelmole's cheeks are often enlarged than the left cheek. How on earth did he use such a gun to hit his prey? Even the most nimble and dexterous man could not conceive, however, he often came with a fruitful. "It also shows that Yelmole is a clever and adaptable person."

In some chapters, Turgenev describes the plight of Russian peasants under the serf system, which has a certain revelation and critical effect on serfdom. On the one hand, Russian farmers have a rich spiritual world and creative power, on the other hand they are in slavery and the destruction of the right to status, this very disproportionate and extremely contradictory situation. This is not only the real life, but also the progress of Turgenev's ideological stance and keen artistic vision reflects.

From the above analysis, it can be seen that the theme of Hunter's notes is pluralistic, this article analyzes the theme and description of "Hunter's Notes" from three aspects, which are the praise theme of serfs, Hunter's hunting theme and contradictory theme. The study of the theme of the work of the author to express the love of nature, the characterization of the Russian character, the landlord, farmers and the interests of the common interest of the focus on a more profound understanding of the hunting theme of natural and aesthetic significance of the deepening. The lack of this article is not particularly clear in the article, the argument is insufficient, the language is not fluent gorgeous and so on, for these deficiencies will be further added to the explanation.

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Essay代写：British policy of rearming the federal republic of Germany

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- British policy of rearming the federal republic of Germany，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了英国对重新武装联邦德国的政策。德国分裂后，由于冷战所促成的两极格局逐渐形成以及朝鲜战争的爆发，英法美苏等大国之间的关系发生了重要变化，同时促使它们对联邦德国的政策也发生了重大转变。面对美国和法国在重新武装联邦德国问题上的不同意见，英国在召开的纽约三国外长会议上采取了相对谨慎的态度。这次会议没有通过美国重新武装联邦德国的计划，但是会上所达成主要决议，符合英国稳妥地、渐进地实现重新武装联邦德国的政策方向。

The west single-handedly installed the federal government of Germany in 1949, but it still pursued a policy of demilitarization and disarmament. In the context of the bipolar confrontation between east and west formed by the cold war, western countries including Britain saw the military potential of federal Germany and believed that if it could be used to contain the Soviet union, it could not only make up for the weak military defense of Western Europe, but also draw federal Germany into the western camp. On the road of the rearming of the federal republic of Germany, the relevant strategies and policies of Britain are worth further study.

The first Berlin crisis ended in June 1949, but the cold war atmosphere between east and west continued unabated. At this time, Britain had great doubts about whether Western Europe could withstand the attack of the Soviet union in the future. On July 15, 1949, the British committee of chiefs of staff argued in a memorandum: "if the war broke out between 1951 and 1953, the western alliance would not have sufficient resources to resist the Russian attack, and our contribution would be minimal." Because of its weakness, postwar Britain was unable to organize a large-scale military defense. The British military believes that France is "the most important member of the European defense system", and among other countries in Western Europe, France may play the most important role in resisting the Soviet union and defending Europe. Britain also knew, however, at the time of the French also bear leadership in Western Europe against the Soviet union's responsibility, the British foreign secretary Ernest bevan in July 1950, said: "now in France and the Benelux countries such as the military's ability to still very weak, France is still sluggish, France now than when signing the treaty of Brussels to more vulnerable."

Under such circumstances, the role of federal Germany at the forefront of the cold war in the defense system of Western Europe became more and more obvious. After the breakup of Germany, the federal republic of Germany became the bridgehead of the western countries against the Soviet union. Most of the industries of the former Germany, especially the heavy industry, are located in federal Germany. During the World War II the German army accumulated a great deal of experience in fighting large Soviet regiments. If the industrial and human military potential of federal Germany can be fully utilized, it will certainly make a great contribution to the defense of Western Europe. As early as 1948, British field marshal Montgomery asked for the recruitment of German troops, in addition to the United States and France have also been proposed in 1949 to rearm Germany.

In November 1949, the British committee of chiefs of staff recommended to the foreign office the rapid establishment of an armed police force in the federal republic of Germany, and further proposed that the size of the German army should be equal to that of France if German reunification was completed. However, the ministry of foreign affairs opposed the proposal on the grounds that the current political and military situation in Western Europe was so complex that rearming the federal republic of Germany was bound to be opposed by France; The us government has made a clear statement on the defense and arming of Western Europe and the federal republic of Germany, which wants demilitarization and disarmament. In addition, the ministry of foreign affairs was afraid that arming the federal republic of Germany would arouse opposition from the Soviet union and provide an excuse for the Soviet union to further arm and garrison the democratic republic of Germany. Therefore, the ministry of foreign affairs tried its best to avoid discussing the issue of rearming the federal republic of Germany when the time was not ripe.

However, the British military did not stop its efforts to rearm the federal Germany. On May 1, 1950, the chief of staff committee again emphasized the role of the federal Germany in the defense of Western Europe and advocated the establishment of "German army" in the report submitted to the cabinet. The report argues that unless the federal republic becomes part of the west, politically and militarily, it will become part of the east. The defense of the federal republic of Germany by western countries alone is not enough, and the federal government will not be content to be protected by two or three divisions. "The ultimate goal is to create a German force in western European militaries," the report said, though the details of how that might be done need to be studied. In particular, the report stresses that "any German army must be part of the framework of western European defence forces".

On the eve of the Korean war in June 1950, the commander of the British forces in Germany, general Robert Robertson, left office. In the report, he pointed out that Western Europe could not resist the Soviet union if the federal Germany was not included in the defense arrangement. He strongly suggested that immediate attention should be paid to rearming the germans, leaving the technical questions of "when" and "how" for further study; He also pointed out that Britain should take the initiative on this issue and not start to consider arming the federal republic of Germany only under the threat of the Soviet union or at the request of Germany.

Is required, you can see that the British military rearming the federal republic of Germany, there are two main reasons: first, worry about the Soviet union's military threat, worried that western European countries generally do not have enough military force to fulfill the task of defence in Western Europe, and rearm in the front of the cold war the federal republic of Germany in Europe can be highly complementary Western Europe in the military defense; Second, it not only showed the west's determination to contain the Soviet union, but also made the federal republic of Germany more determined to ally with the west.

By the early 1950s, however, the British foreign office was more cautious about rearming west Germany. "The petersberg agreement remains the basis of the present British government's policy towards Germany," notes a memorandum of understanding on German policy presented to the cabinet by the foreign secretary, bevin, in April. In November 1949, German chancellor adenauer signed the petersberg agreement with the representatives of Britain, France and the United States in the supreme council of allied countries of the federal republic of Germany. The federal government of Germany has certain autonomy in diplomacy and economy. On the other hand, the agreement considered the question of suspending the state of war with the federal republic of Germany, but made no relevant changes. "The federal government of Germany is committed to a policy of demilitarization, demilitarization, non-nazification and the dissolution of cartels," bevan emphasized. According to the petersberg agreement, the state of war between Britain, France and the United States against Germany was not over yet. Federal Germany had not gained full sovereignty and was still under the military occupation of western Allies. Under such circumstances, it would be obviously difficult for the federal republic of Germany to join the western military camp and rearm it immediately. Therefore, although bevin emphasized to restore the normal state of the federal Germany and restore its diplomatic power, he said nothing about arming the federal Germany and restoring its military and defense power. In May 1950, bevin discussed the situation in Europe with secretary of state Roy acheson. Acheson said the Soviet armed forces were already far larger than those in the west, leading to "more aggressive and aggressive policies in the next three or four years." Bevin agreed with acheson's analysis and went on to argue that the threat to the Soviet union could not be met by British power alone, but by the role of NATO, effectively emphasizing American military support for Europe. Bevin then hinted that she wanted the federal republic to join NATO: "if Germany is one day an equal member of the western system, there should be an organization that she can join that is broader than a purely European organization." Obviously, NATO is such a ready-made organization. But bevin also pointed out that the biggest obstacle to federal Germany joining NATO was France's opposition. "France does not want to see west Germany linked in any way to the Atlantic treaty," he said. Bevin expressed "understanding" of France's attitude and said the federal republic would not immediately seek to join NATO in order to maintain the existing western alliance system. In the talks, acheson and bevin both saw the role and status of Germany in the future cold war between east and west. Bevin pointed out that Germany could conduct activities in the European economic cooperation organization, especially emphasizing the peaceful conduct. He and acheson agreed to "avoid any discussion of rearming the germans. Two days later, in bevan, acheson and French foreign minister schuman during the talks, Britain and France United States foreign ministers again to confirm the importance of "berg Peters agreement", and points out that "Europe Germany should gradually return to society" of a free people, the federal republic of Germany government hopes to achieve this goal as soon as possible, but this needs to be "the federal republic of Germany government and people show sincere cooperation and confidence", the safety of the other Allies to get satisfy, this requires "Germany is willing to maintain peace and friendly cooperation with Allies". It can be seen that although bevan and acheson felt the threat of the Soviet union to Western Europe, the Soviet attack would not happen immediately; As for federal Germany, neither Britain nor America wants to bring it into NATO immediately. Instead, they want to take gradual steps to bring it into the western bloc. So at this point Britain is not going to lightly suggest rearming the federal republic of Germany, and it's going to try to avoid talking about it.

The Korean war broke out on June 25, 1950, which undoubtedly had a significant impact on British foreign policy and western European defense strategy. It was widely believed in Britain that the situation in Korea was likely to be repeated in Germany, that is, the democratic Germany launched the war to annex the federal Germany with the support of the Soviet union. At a cabinet meeting on July 14th, ministers argued that if America were to assume responsibility for the far east, it would concentrate its resources on north Korea, thus diverting American aid to Western Europe. On the other hand, marshal Montgomery's report argued that the French army was involved in the Indochina war, resulting in a further weakening of western European defenses. In short, "the situation in Western Europe is extremely disturbing". It can be seen that the outbreak of the Korean war made Britain more worried about the insufficient defense force in Western Europe.

After the Korean war broke out, the federal government of Germany also felt the pressure from the Soviet union and democratic Germany. In talks with the allied supreme council of the federal republic of Germany on August 17th, adenauer stressed the military threat of the Soviet union and the democratic republic of Germany. Improve airfield, jet fighters approach forward airfield; The German democratic people's police force, which had already been formed, was expanded to 50,000 to 60,000. Fifteen training schools were opened to train GDR officers. According to adenauer, "Stalin intended to occupy federal Germany in its entirety as soon as possible." He called on the west to strengthen its military defenses against federal Germany, "or to authorize him to establish some kind of army against the people's police army."

In this case, the British chief of staff committee once again put forward the proposal of rearming the federal republic of Germany and put forward specific plans. In August, chief of staff committee put forward the use of the federal republic of Germany resources used in defense of Western Europe's report, the report's main content is: once again put forward western Allies military target is the federal republic of Germany army should become part of the western powers ", its "must become a part of western European defense system within the framework of integration". To realize the goal of using federal Germany to defend Western Europe, federal Germany should finally become a full member of NATO. If the federal republic of Germany becomes a member of NATO, it should first make a series of restrictions on its weapons and equipment and the size of its army, so that the federal republic of Germany's army can be equipped with defensive weapons rather than offensive weapons. German industry must be used for western defense, and under the supervision and guidance of nato-related organizations, German military industry must be restarted. The report urged the British government to immediately discuss with its western Allies the issue of rearming the federal republic of Germany and start the process of arming the federal republic of Germany as soon as possible.

Mr Adenauer's warnings to the west and the report of the British council of chiefs of staff were taken seriously by the foreign office. Bevan, on August 29, to the cabinet defence committee submitted a memo, elaborated his own views, to adenauer's warning, he thinks that adenauer stated situation with Allies have intelligence, "if we cannot build up enough deterrent against the Soviet union and its related action, so I am very worried about the Soviet government next year will be repeated in Germany they have made in Korea". Bevan argued that the GDR's army had already been established and that it would take 15 months for it to be fully prepared to attack the federal republic of Germany, which was "not much time left" for the west. But Mr Bevin raises two main obstacles. One is that France has been fiercely opposed to arming the federal republic of Germany. Second, the political parties within the federal republic of Germany and the attitude of the German people towards rearming are still relatively negative. The social Democratic Party, the second largest political party in the federal republic of Germany, strongly opposes the remilitarization of Germany. The majority of the people of federal Germany did not want to fight in the war. The germans didn't want to get into a third war after two wars; The germans thought the Allies' plan was to hold the Rhine, and that the union might be abandoned by its western Allies in the event of war. As for the above obstacles, bevin believes that they can be further solved through consultation with France and the federal republic of Germany.

But Mr Bevin thinks the plan proposed by the joint chiefs of staff to rearm the bundeswehr is too big to be carried out now. A similar force of 3, 000 in Berlin; Abandoning the idea of a military police force at the state level; Slightly expand and increase the strength of the German border customs police; Stop dismantling and transferring industrial equipment in the federal republic of Germany. Bevin asked the cabinet for a mandate to inform the United States and France of the plan, which was agreed at an upcoming meeting of British, French and American foreign ministers in New York.

On Aug. 30, the day after the memo was submitted, Mr. Bevin sent another memo on halting the dismantling of German industrial equipment and factories. The memo states that the federal republic of Germany has effectively disarmed, militarily and industrially, and has neither the will nor the means to threaten the west. If the British authorities were still trying to destroy what was left of Germany's defence, "then the germans cannot be encouraged to contribute in any way to the defence of the west". Bevin advised the cabinet to ask the British supreme commander in Germany to stop dismantling German industrial equipment and related activities and return the relevant equipment to the germans.

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