本篇paper代写-Survival Under the Pressure of English Subjects讲了在世界各地移民后代的多元文化国家，设计学生，教师，校长和地区政府的双语教育计划时，应考虑四个主要因素。课程的重点应该是在课外活动中应用沟通技巧，而不是考试的另一主题。本篇paper代写由51due代写平台整理，供大家参考阅读。
Introduction
In a multi-cultural country with descendants of immigrants from all over the world, four major factors should be considered when designing bilingual education programs, which are students, teachers, principals and regional governments. The emphasis of the programs should be on the application of communication skills in extracurricular activities, rather than another subject for the exams. From the initiation of a policy it goes through various levels of elements, each playing a role determining if the policy is a success at the end. This essay will follow the imaginary path of a bilingual education policy from the perspective of a policy maker, and examine how each element shapes the policy into its finalized form. Bilingual education in the public schools should distinguish itself from the traditional English programs in terms of subject scope, assessment system and mode of instruction, in order to be successful in the US public schools.
Demand of Students
There has been numerous research proving that the exposure to a bilingual environment is beneficial to a child or student in both language proficiency and intelligence. However, it is still disputable whether having a parallel language education is superior to the traditional English education. Some even doubt that learning a second language would interfere with the English education negatively (Johnson, 92-112). It is undeniable that to fully master a language and appreciate the beauty of it through literature, it would take years of immersion in the environment and a lot of effort in reading and writing. The public schools in the United States are only capable of providing such an education program in English. If the proportion of the second language is the same as English, the time spent on both languages would be halved, with the increase risk of only superficial understanding of the languages. Therefore, the bilingual education should still have one primary choice of language, assisted by theoretical concepts of a second language.
Using the mother language also help students create a safe atmosphere. Students from the same background can find common language more easily with the use of their mother language. As a result, the confidence and sense of cultural identity are created, thus promoting cultural diversity on campus. Being able to engage in activities in two languages is one of the biggest advantages of a bilingual program (Tabari & Firooz, 310). There are worries about the exclusivity and racial separation caused by it, but with proper arrangement and mixture of both English and secondary language activities it will be no issue. The advantages of bilingual education are not obvious in other areas of studies, such as math and science courses in a secondary language. Despite the implementation of such subjects in some schools, it is unnecessary and confusing for students. The importance of consistency in learning science subjects should be emphasized to avoid memorizing all the terminologies in different languages. Some may argue that it helps student understand the concept better if it was in their mother tongue, but the time spent on it is still wasteful. In order to be fully prepared for more advanced levels of education, which is in English, student should spend more time taking in the concepts and terms in English. In summary, bilingual programs are necessary for students to broaden their horizons, however, there should be a line drawn between science subjects and liberal arts ones. Non-English subjects should only be offered in subjects that are most relevant to the students’ daily lives, with the minimum interference with the ordinary English subjects.
Policy Practice and Adaption by Teachers
Teachers are the final link of the execution of a policy thus they are the key to the successful of an education program. In the bilingual program, teachers may find it difficult to truly help the students if they are from a different background. When in such a situation, the teachers should be prepared not to rushing into judgement by single behaviors of the students, since sometimes it is only the cultural difference that creates the misunderstanding. A teacher needs to engage with the students in ways that account for social and political backgrounds. Such preparations can be from self-studying, or a holistic approach where teachers learn about the linguistic, racial, and cultural backgrounds (Kim & Kara, 122-132). Only when a teacher understands where are the students from, what are the social, political and racial circumstances of the students can they provide psychological support for the students.
Sometimes, there are students in class with a higher level of mastery of the language than the rest, which becomes a motivation for the teachers to go beyond the guidelines and make adaptations. For students with higher proficiency level, teacher should usually provide extra materials or bonus assignments for them. However, most of the teachers fails to differentiate the autonomy needs of part of the student and give unified assignments. Adjustments in the program can be made to focus less on marks and increase the flexibility of the language courses to cater for the needs of different students (Kim & Kara, 122-132). With the supportive atmosphere, students can learn from each other and adapt to competitive learning as well. During the implementation of language policy, teachers adopt methods of teaching based on their own beliefs, which can be inaccurate sometimes. Sometimes they are faced with multiple yet conflicting mechanisms which makes it difficult for them to select the most advantageous way (Hopkins, 573-605). Therefore, it is important to consider the possible teaching scenarios while making the policy, so that there would be a cohesive and systematic way for the teachers to follow when in doubt.
Policy Adoption by School Principals
In the year of 2001, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) policy was introduced. The bilingual program dropout rates for schools in New York increased dramatically in the years that followed. The NCLB was an invasive policy that had strict standards on students’ grades. It was later discovered that whenever emergent bilinguals do not perform well for the NCLB standards, bilingual programs were there to take the blame. People were convinced that the elimination of bilingual programs would help students focus on English subjects only and get better grades. However, such allegations are merely based on unsubstantiated beliefs and biases (Menken, 104). As a result of the decisions, most of the schools dropped the bilingual program to push the students for better performance in other subjects. When the principals were interviewed about the major factor that led to the abandonment of the bilingual programs, the answer was unanimous: the high pressure of accountability for students’ academic performances. It was only the few schools with a firm belief in bilingual education that kept the bilingual programs under pressure.
While it has been proved, that bilingual programs are not the primary objective for the policy makers, the failure of bilingual programs under the pressure of NCLB made people think about how the bilingual program can survive under the accountability pressure and competition from traditional English programs. With the fierce competition from other programs that push for performance, the bilingual programs should adopt a different approach that focus more on extracurricular activities and less on academic performances. It is also effective to learn and use a language in the real-life context, instead of reading from textbooks. The NCLB and the following “Race to the Top” programs are both systematic and rigorous ways to assess student continuously (Menken, 120). On the contrary, bilingual programs should promote on the light-heartedness and “soft skills” obtained in the program. The evaluation of the program can also be more versatile so that instead of a burden for school principals, it becomes a selling point of cultural vibrancy and diversity.
Policy Appropriation by the State and Local Governments
While the NCLB puts huge pressure of accountability on the shoulders of school principals, the multi-layered language policy makes it possible for state governments to shape the appropriation of federal language policy. With the federal policy shifting its focus away from bilingual education, some states implemented policies that revalue the importance of it and bring it back for the students. With different ways of interpretation, the same policies will have very different results in different states. When the policies are enacted under a social background, there is always a space where people can negotiate and find ways to respond to the policies to fit their best interest (Johnson, 92-112). In a multicultural region, despite the NCLB’s rigorous pursuit for performance, governments can still find ways to fit bilingual courses and activities into the students’ timetables.
Conclusion
Policy making is no easy task with the complexity of all the factors involved. Therefore, it is crucial to find the main elements that matter the most for the successful implementation of a policy. Students are the source of demand for a bilingual education program, which should fit the needs of the students in a social context, rather than in textbooks. Teachers are the practitioners of the policies, who must be made prepared and informed about the different cultural information needed. Adaptation of the program to different levels of student should also be provided in a systematic way. School are the decision makers on whether to adopt a bilingual program. When designing such a program it should be noted that no conflict between programs occur. To achieve this goal a reform is needed for the bilingual program to focus more on extracurricular activities and less on marks. This reduces the pressure on both the schools and the students. Finally, states and regional government are also key players with the ability to adapt to a policy into a more localized and customized form. Only when all the factors are considered can one make a decision that truly improve the students’ mastery of a second, or even third language.
References
Hopkins, Megan. “Beliefs in Context: Understanding Language Policy Implementation
at a Systems Level” Educational Policy June 2016 30: 573-605, first published on September 21, 2014 doi:10.1177/0895904814550073
Johnson, Eric J., and David C. Johnson. "Language Policy and Bilingual Education in
Arizona and Washington State." International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, vol. 18, no. 1, 2015., pp. 92-112 doi:10.1080/13670050.2014.882288.
Kim, Jung-In, and Kara M. Viesca. "Three Reading-Intervention Teachers' Identity
Positioning and Practices to Motivate and Engage Emergent Bilinguals in an Urban Middle School." Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 55, 2016., pp. 122-132 doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.003.
Menken, Kate, and Cristian Solorza. "No Child Left Bilingual: Accountability and the
Elimination of Bilingual Education Programs in New York City Schools." Educational Policy, vol. 28, no. 1, 2014;2012;., pp. 96-125 doi:10.1177/0895904812468228.
Tabari, Fatemeh, and Firooz Sadighi. "Bilingual Education; from Theory to Practice."
Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods, vol. 4, no. 2, 2014., pp. 310.
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Introduction
In a multi-cultural country with descendants of immigrants from all over the world, four major factors should be considered when designing bilingual education programs, which are students, teachers, principals and regional governments. The emphasis of the programs should be on the application of communication skills in extracurricular activities, rather than another subject for the exams. From the initiation of a policy it goes through various levels of elements, each playing a role determining if the policy is a success at the end. This essay will follow the imaginary path of a bilingual education policy from the perspective of a policy maker, and examine how each element shapes the policy into its finalized form. Bilingual education in the public schools should distinguish itself from the traditional English programs in terms of subject scope, assessment system and mode of instruction, in order to be successful in the US public schools.
Demand of Students
There has been numerous research proving that the exposure to a bilingual environment is beneficial to a child or student in both language proficiency and intelligence. However, it is still disputable whether having a parallel language education is superior to the traditional English education. Some even doubt that learning a second language would interfere with the English education negatively (Johnson, 92-112). It is undeniable that to fully master a language and appreciate the beauty of it through literature, it would take years of immersion in the environment and a lot of effort in reading and writing. The public schools in the United States are only capable of providing such an education program in English. If the proportion of the second language is the same as English, the time spent on both languages would be halved, with the increase risk of only superficial understanding of the languages. Therefore, the bilingual education should still have one primary choice of language, assisted by theoretical concepts of a second language.
Using the mother language also help students create a safe atmosphere. Students from the same background can find common language more easily with the use of their mother language. As a result, the confidence and sense of cultural identity are created, thus promoting cultural diversity on campus. Being able to engage in activities in two languages is one of the biggest advantages of a bilingual program (Tabari & Firooz, 310). There are worries about the exclusivity and racial separation caused by it, but with proper arrangement and mixture of both English and secondary language activities it will be no issue. The advantages of bilingual education are not obvious in other areas of studies, such as math and science courses in a secondary language. Despite the implementation of such subjects in some schools, it is unnecessary and confusing for students. The importance of consistency in learning science subjects should be emphasized to avoid memorizing all the terminologies in different languages. Some may argue that it helps student understand the concept better if it was in their mother tongue, but the time spent on it is still wasteful. In order to be fully prepared for more advanced levels of education, which is in English, student should spend more time taking in the concepts and terms in English. In summary, bilingual programs are necessary for students to broaden their horizons, however, there should be a line drawn between science subjects and liberal arts ones. Non-English subjects should only be offered in subjects that are most relevant to the students’ daily lives, with the minimum interference with the ordinary English subjects.
Policy Practice and Adaption by Teachers
Teachers are the final link of the execution of a policy thus they are the key to the successful of an education program. In the bilingual program, teachers may find it difficult to truly help the students if they are from a different background. When in such a situation, the teachers should be prepared not to rushing into judgement by single behaviors of the students, since sometimes it is only the cultural difference that creates the misunderstanding. A teacher needs to engage with the students in ways that account for social and political backgrounds. Such preparations can be from self-studying, or a holistic approach where teachers learn about the linguistic, racial, and cultural backgrounds (Kim & Kara, 122-132). Only when a teacher understands where are the students from, what are the social, political and racial circumstances of the students can they provide psychological support for the students.
Sometimes, there are students in class with a higher level of mastery of the language than the rest, which becomes a motivation for the teachers to go beyond the guidelines and make adaptations. For students with higher proficiency level, teacher should usually provide extra materials or bonus assignments for them. However, most of the teachers fails to differentiate the autonomy needs of part of the student and give unified assignments. Adjustments in the program can be made to focus less on marks and increase the flexibility of the language courses to cater for the needs of different students (Kim & Kara, 122-132). With the supportive atmosphere, students can learn from each other and adapt to competitive learning as well. During the implementation of language policy, teachers adopt methods of teaching based on their own beliefs, which can be inaccurate sometimes. Sometimes they are faced with multiple yet conflicting mechanisms which makes it difficult for them to select the most advantageous way (Hopkins, 573-605). Therefore, it is important to consider the possible teaching scenarios while making the policy, so that there would be a cohesive and systematic way for the teachers to follow when in doubt.
Policy Adoption by School Principals
In the year of 2001, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) policy was introduced. The bilingual program dropout rates for schools in New York increased dramatically in the years that followed. The NCLB was an invasive policy that had strict standards on students’ grades. It was later discovered that whenever emergent bilinguals do not perform well for the NCLB standards, bilingual programs were there to take the blame. People were convinced that the elimination of bilingual programs would help students focus on English subjects only and get better grades. However, such allegations are merely based on unsubstantiated beliefs and biases (Menken, 104). As a result of the decisions, most of the schools dropped the bilingual program to push the students for better performance in other subjects. When the principals were interviewed about the major factor that led to the abandonment of the bilingual programs, the answer was unanimous: the high pressure of accountability for students’ academic performances. It was only the few schools with a firm belief in bilingual education that kept the bilingual programs under pressure.
While it has been proved, that bilingual programs are not the primary objective for the policy makers, the failure of bilingual programs under the pressure of NCLB made people think about how the bilingual program can survive under the accountability pressure and competition from traditional English programs. With the fierce competition from other programs that push for performance, the bilingual programs should adopt a different approach that focus more on extracurricular activities and less on academic performances. It is also effective to learn and use a language in the real-life context, instead of reading from textbooks. The NCLB and the following “Race to the Top” programs are both systematic and rigorous ways to assess student continuously (Menken, 120). On the contrary, bilingual programs should promote on the light-heartedness and “soft skills” obtained in the program. The evaluation of the program can also be more versatile so that instead of a burden for school principals, it becomes a selling point of cultural vibrancy and diversity.
Policy Appropriation by the State and Local Governments
While the NCLB puts huge pressure of accountability on the shoulders of school principals, the multi-layered language policy makes it possible for state governments to shape the appropriation of federal language policy. With the federal policy shifting its focus away from bilingual education, some states implemented policies that revalue the importance of it and bring it back for the students. With different ways of interpretation, the same policies will have very different results in different states. When the policies are enacted under a social background, there is always a space where people can negotiate and find ways to respond to the policies to fit their best interest (Johnson, 92-112). In a multicultural region, despite the NCLB’s rigorous pursuit for performance, governments can still find ways to fit bilingual courses and activities into the students’ timetables.
Conclusion
Policy making is no easy task with the complexity of all the factors involved. Therefore, it is crucial to find the main elements that matter the most for the successful implementation of a policy. Students are the source of demand for a bilingual education program, which should fit the needs of the students in a social context, rather than in textbooks. Teachers are the practitioners of the policies, who must be made prepared and informed about the different cultural information needed. Adaptation of the program to different levels of student should also be provided in a systematic way. School are the decision makers on whether to adopt a bilingual program. When designing such a program it should be noted that no conflict between programs occur. To achieve this goal a reform is needed for the bilingual program to focus more on extracurricular activities and less on marks. This reduces the pressure on both the schools and the students. Finally, states and regional government are also key players with the ability to adapt to a policy into a more localized and customized form. Only when all the factors are considered can one make a decision that truly improve the students’ mastery of a second, or even third language.
References
Hopkins, Megan. “Beliefs in Context: Understanding Language Policy Implementation
at a Systems Level” Educational Policy June 2016 30: 573-605, first published on September 21, 2014 doi:10.1177/0895904814550073
Johnson, Eric J., and David C. Johnson. "Language Policy and Bilingual Education in
Arizona and Washington State." International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, vol. 18, no. 1, 2015., pp. 92-112 doi:10.1080/13670050.2014.882288.
Kim, Jung-In, and Kara M. Viesca. "Three Reading-Intervention Teachers' Identity
Positioning and Practices to Motivate and Engage Emergent Bilinguals in an Urban Middle School." Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 55, 2016., pp. 122-132 doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.003.
Menken, Kate, and Cristian Solorza. "No Child Left Bilingual: Accountability and the
Elimination of Bilingual Education Programs in New York City Schools." Educational Policy, vol. 28, no. 1, 2014;2012;., pp. 96-125 doi:10.1177/0895904812468228.
Tabari, Fatemeh, and Firooz Sadighi. "Bilingual Education; from Theory to Practice."
Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods, vol. 4, no. 2, 2014., pp. 310.
要想成绩好，英国论文得写好，51due代写平台为你提供英国留学资讯，专业辅导，还为你提供专业英国essay代写，paper代写，report代写，需要找论文代写的话快来联系我们51due吧。—Ace
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