下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- NATO counter-terrorism strategy，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了北约反恐战略。自冷战结束以来，世界安全形势发生了巨大的变化，传统意义上的军事威胁相对减弱，而恐怖主义等非传统威胁正不断增强。北约的整体战略也就此作出了相应的调整，对恐怖主义问题的关注在其战略中的地位逐步上升。尤其是“9・11”事件后，反击恐怖主义在一定程度上成为了北约议事日程中最紧迫的议题。这一变化反映在北约不断修订的战略文件中，也体现在北约的政策实践中。在某种意义上甚至可以说，对恐怖主义的反击重塑了北约。
NATO was founded in the early cold war, its main purpose is to Western Europe at that time then forms a military alliance with the United States, to jointly prevent the resurrection of German militarism and the threat of Soviet power in eastern Europe, and NATO during the cold war the main strategic concern is how to prevent the Soviet union and its satellites can launch a large-scale armed invasion of Western Europe. During the cold war, NATO issued four guiding strategic documents to guide the overall defense strategy of NATO. On the whole, these strategic documents, though slightly different, are guided by the basic idea of preparing for a full-scale war with the Soviet bloc. And because NATO lacks sufficient confidence in its ground defense capabilities deployed in central Europe, nuclear weapons will be the main source of leverage for the Soviet military on the ground. From a defensive perspective, NATO has also envisaged possible engagement with the Soviet bloc in areas such as the Middle East or the far east, but its focus has been primarily on Western Europe. Other types of military activity, including counter-terrorism, were not of concern to NATO at the time.
Western Europe at that time there have been some domestic terrorist activities, including striking is the national separatism and political radicalism stance of paramilitaries and parties, such as Spain's eta, the Irish republican army, Italy's red brigades, the federal republic of Germany in the red army faction terrorist, etc. For a long time, people tend to think of these activities is not too much attention on NATO level, its influence is mainly limited to within countries, to blow is mainly composed of governments. However, after the end of the cold war, with some parties especially former officials publicly acknowledged in the news media, some countries parliament announced various surveys and survey results, journalists and historians intervention of relevant investigation and research, a surprising truth began to disclosure: in the fight against communist expansion, which is dominated by the NATO in the United States to implement the strategy of "tension". Benefited from the cia funding support, and Western Europe have been setting up a secret organization, which USES the very means in creating tension as the frontier of the cold war western society, will oppose terrorism against terrorist activities focus on the political left, the far-right secret organization of terrorism crimes committed referred to each other, or indirectly encouraged the far-left forces of terrorism, aims to break the political authority of the left, to prevent the rise of them. In spite of the NATO and the exact relationship between Western Europe during the cold war, terrorism, people are still looking forward to more direct first-hand archival evidence, but the existing materials showed that cannot be ruled out NATO and the complex connection between terrorism and other illegal activities. This shows from a side, terrorism and counter - terrorism itself, have a strong policy tool.
The collapse of the Soviet union in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to the complete dissolution of the Warsaw pact group, which had long been in conflict with NATO, and even the Soviet union itself was on the verge of collapse. NATO's military strategy of using the Soviet union and the Warsaw pact as its main imaginary enemies has been shaken. Along with the further development of the Soviet union domestic situation in eastern Europe, NATO leadership gradually felt across Europe and even the world's strategic situation in fundamental changes, to maintain the original strategy has seem inappropriate.
At the London summit in July 1990, NATO leaders agreed on the need for major adjustments in the organization's basic strategic thinking and mission. NATO issued a new strategic guidance document in November 1991. In its overall assessment of the strategic environment, it believes that the threat from eastern Europe has faded with the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the Warsaw treaty organization. And because liberalism ideology and market economic system, the gradual expansion of the iron curtain on both sides of the political division has gradually offset for a long time, thus fundamentally shaken to the foundation of military confrontation. Due to the development of the European Community and the success of a series of arms control treaties between eastern and Western Europe, the level of military confrontation on both sides of the iron curtain has also been reduced to a certain extent. And crucially, step by step as Soviet troops evacuated from eastern Europe, NATO has been worried about the invasion of the Western Europe could happen is unlikely, may be facing security threats in the future is uncertain. Of course, because the former Soviet union still has a large stockpile of nuclear and conventional weapons, it will have a significant impact on the security of Europe and NATO. Ethnic conflicts and territorial disputes in central and eastern Europe will gradually become a major threat to the security of NATO members, especially at a time when such conflicts will involve external powers. NATO is also looking to the south of the region, west Asia and north Africa, whose value was underlined by the gulf war of 1990. In addition, NATO has begun to focus on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the threat of terrorism. But due to the change of the situation in Europe and the world at this time also in the process of happening, the end result is not very clear, so NATO of the strategic adjustment is relatively more obscure, no future missions and threats to make very clear demarcation.
The evolution of the European situation became clearer in the 1990s. Most eastern European countries have undergone massive democratization and market economy reforms, and relations with NATO have become increasingly close. As early as the 1994 summit, NATO decided to develop a "partnership for peace" to strengthen relations with central and eastern European countries in preparation for the next round of expansion. On the one hand, Russia was plunged into a prolonged recession and political turmoil, and its military strength was greatly weakened by a lack of funds and a loss of personnel. For NATO, the threat from the east is diminishing. On the other hand, many countries in central and eastern Europe have been caught in ethnic and religious conflicts due to the sudden openness and intensification of the complex ethnic conflicts that have been repressed. In particular, a series of civil wars in the former Yugoslavia have had a rather negative impact on security in the region. NATO is also involved in the civil war in bosnia and herzegovina and the kosovo conflict. It in the former Yugoslavia area geographically adjacent to central and eastern Europe are required to execute tasks to give necessary support, coupled with the transition of these nations have already applied to join the organization the favorable situation, prompting them to finally clear the eastward expansion of the strategic thinking.
At the NATO Washington summit in April 1999, the leaders unanimously adopted a new NATO strategy. The strategy confirmed the NATO during the cold war for their valuable contribution to the maintenance of peace in Europe and clearly believes that the threat of the cold war has disappeared, replaced by a new, more uncertain threat. NATO has stressed that it will pay more attention to instability in the Balkans. In fact, NATO is now not only highly involved in the bosnian crisis, but also launching massive air strikes against the south alliance during the kosovo war. This suggests that the most serious real threat to NATO at the time was political instability and economic recession in central and eastern Europe, and that its involvement in the region was deepening. At the time, terrorism was a concern, but it was not a priority for NATO operations. Since then peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia have not been strictly counter-terrorism operations, but their characteristics are similar to those of counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations. Overall, the 1991 and 1999 NATO strategy papers were relatively vague and lacked a clear understanding and emphasis on future threats, especially terrorist threats.
In 2001 the outbreak of the "911" incident of NATO in the post-cold war era has the most significant influence. Looking back on the trajectory of NATO after the incident, it can be said that it has prompted a fundamental change in the attitude of NATO on the issue of terrorism. In the day after the "911" incident, on September 12, 2001, NATO's decision, in article 5 of the performance of the north Atlantic treaty commitments about the group's collective self-defence, clearly shows the other member states and the United States united, determined by military means to fight terrorism. The alliance mechanism for cross-border flights was activated. NATO traditionally focused on is the European members of the security issues, the United States is more as a provider of security rather than consumers, yet it was the attacks against NATO and the strongest military power around the world, the United States. NATO's original intention is to rely on U.S. forces to defend Europe, article 5 of the results of the north Atlantic treaty was first put them into practice is to support the United States, this is unexpected events. And will attack from non-state actors as meet the requirements of the Washington treaty "armed attack", to the practice of collective self-defense, is beyond the respond as to the traditional "military invasion" understanding.
While NATO clearly show the positive support counterterrorism operations in the United States and the attitude of the start of the war in Afghanistan, but the United States in the war didn't make the organization become its counter-terrorism rely on the force at the core, in fact, the United States has formed a more meets the needs of their union. Its approach to NATO can be summed up as: we will contact you if we need to. Because of the long gap in military spending between the United States and NATO's European members, it has been difficult for the latter to give much substantive support to subsequent U.S. military operations abroad. The sum total of NATO's European members troops than the United States army, but due to long time in significant difference between the national defense expenditure, lack of European troops and American army the same global information gathering and strike capability, strategic project gap is obvious. Especially American combat operations in Afghanistan later geographically and far to Europe, the main operational way also is given priority to with air attacks over a long distance, this is not good at European armies. So basically the main military operations at all stages of the war in Afghanistan by the U.S. army alone, in addition to directly support the British operations, other NATO members only by airborne early warning and control system for the aerial reconnaissance and command provides certain help. In addition, European countries have deployed more naval forces in the Mediterranean to protect their maritime transport routes. In short, NATO's involvement in the main stages of the American-led war in Afghanistan is awkward. This was first because it launched the collective defence clause in response not to a previously feared mass invasion of its member states' territory, but to an unexpected emergency. Moreover, the huge gap in us and European military capabilities has left NATO's support for us operations at a very limited level. It is precisely because NATO's role in the main combat phase of the war in Afghanistan is not obvious that the decline of NATO is frequent.
However, as the end of the war in Afghanistan main battle phase, the taliban regime in Afghanistan, was overthrown by basic nationwide assistance provided by the NATO in Afghanistan is becoming increasingly important for the United States. Small, elite special forces and large air strikes may be enough to defeat an opponent on the ground, but they cannot afford the long-term task of maintaining stability in Afghanistan. The latter requires large ground forces, and sending European troops in the name of NATO can reduce the pressure on American troops on personnel. In January 2002, the United Nations adopted resolution 1386 in support of the establishment of an international security assistance force in the Kabul region. The force was made up of volunteer to participate in Afghanistan country, but because of this way doesn't adapt to the development of the situation, since NATO in August 2003 to take over the command of the international security assistance force in Afghanistan. In lO of the same year, the UN security council decided to extend the mandate of the force throughout Afghanistan. NATO's military operations have gone well beyond its defensive zones, but the subsequent terrorist attacks on Spain and Britain have made it all the more plausible to carry out the mission in NATO's name. The international security assistance force is mainly composed of other NATO Allies, the United States is only limited participation, at the same time the United States also separate leadership "operation enduring freedom", so in Afghanistan have two parallel operation.
In March 2003, the United States launched the invasion of Iraq. The war has not received unanimous support from NATO members because it is not closely linked to terrorist attacks. The United States has formed a coalition of countries that have volunteered for the war, but NATO has not been directly involved in the Iraq war. But, persuaded by the United States, NATO later provided personnel training for the war in Iraq. NATO is also widely involved in a range of international peacekeeping operations. As the war in Afghanistan is gradually stepped into the stage of mainly clear remnants of the enemy forces of counter-insurgency, America's military advantage is limited by the asymmetric warfare means, war also evolved towards increasingly stalemate. The Afghan war has increasingly resembled a classic guerrilla scenario. The United States and NATO found themselves in a situation where they could not be defeated, but where they could not eliminate their opponents completely. Since 2005, tensions in what had been a relatively calm Afghanistan have grown, with the taliban increasingly attacking civilians and foreign troops. Roadside bomb attacks have become its main means. It was a barbarous and difficult way to prevent it, and the attackers had no clear military purpose but to reduce the morale of the enemy by causing as many casualties as possible. NATO forces, Afghan government forces and local civilians have all suffered heavy casualties.
Taliban forces to enhance the main reasons are: first, the leadership has not been destroyed, just return to Pakistan's western mountains, which can keep the command of the action; Second, can hide the taliban in Pakistan's western mountains to save power, there have been large Numbers of pushtun inhabitants live, can provide effective shelter and supplies for the taliban, but U.S. and NATO cannot direct access to the region to clear, this is to give up the opportunity to attack opponents nests, and simply waiting for the enemy attack at favorable timing turned into an endless battles of defense; In addition, the 2003 war in Iraq, launched by the United States, intensified anti-American sentiment in the Muslim world and facilitated more support for the taliban.
In an effort to combat the more powerful and active taliban, international security assistance forces began moving toward southern Afghanistan in late 2005 to fight directly against the taliban's remnants. American troops to the participation of the international security assistance force began to increase, combat becomes more intense, the number of foreign troops in Afghanistan has increased rapidly, from the rapid rise of more than ten thousand people at the beginning of 2002 to 2007, more than forty thousand people. In addition, the international security assistance force has become the main force in the war, and the U.S. military has also started to participate in relevant operations. In 2006, the unified command was established between operation enduring freedom and the international security assistance force to coordinate their operations. As security has deteriorated, divisions within NATO over the operation have grown.
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NATO was founded in the early cold war, its main purpose is to Western Europe at that time then forms a military alliance with the United States, to jointly prevent the resurrection of German militarism and the threat of Soviet power in eastern Europe, and NATO during the cold war the main strategic concern is how to prevent the Soviet union and its satellites can launch a large-scale armed invasion of Western Europe. During the cold war, NATO issued four guiding strategic documents to guide the overall defense strategy of NATO. On the whole, these strategic documents, though slightly different, are guided by the basic idea of preparing for a full-scale war with the Soviet bloc. And because NATO lacks sufficient confidence in its ground defense capabilities deployed in central Europe, nuclear weapons will be the main source of leverage for the Soviet military on the ground. From a defensive perspective, NATO has also envisaged possible engagement with the Soviet bloc in areas such as the Middle East or the far east, but its focus has been primarily on Western Europe. Other types of military activity, including counter-terrorism, were not of concern to NATO at the time.
Western Europe at that time there have been some domestic terrorist activities, including striking is the national separatism and political radicalism stance of paramilitaries and parties, such as Spain's eta, the Irish republican army, Italy's red brigades, the federal republic of Germany in the red army faction terrorist, etc. For a long time, people tend to think of these activities is not too much attention on NATO level, its influence is mainly limited to within countries, to blow is mainly composed of governments. However, after the end of the cold war, with some parties especially former officials publicly acknowledged in the news media, some countries parliament announced various surveys and survey results, journalists and historians intervention of relevant investigation and research, a surprising truth began to disclosure: in the fight against communist expansion, which is dominated by the NATO in the United States to implement the strategy of "tension". Benefited from the cia funding support, and Western Europe have been setting up a secret organization, which USES the very means in creating tension as the frontier of the cold war western society, will oppose terrorism against terrorist activities focus on the political left, the far-right secret organization of terrorism crimes committed referred to each other, or indirectly encouraged the far-left forces of terrorism, aims to break the political authority of the left, to prevent the rise of them. In spite of the NATO and the exact relationship between Western Europe during the cold war, terrorism, people are still looking forward to more direct first-hand archival evidence, but the existing materials showed that cannot be ruled out NATO and the complex connection between terrorism and other illegal activities. This shows from a side, terrorism and counter - terrorism itself, have a strong policy tool.
The collapse of the Soviet union in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to the complete dissolution of the Warsaw pact group, which had long been in conflict with NATO, and even the Soviet union itself was on the verge of collapse. NATO's military strategy of using the Soviet union and the Warsaw pact as its main imaginary enemies has been shaken. Along with the further development of the Soviet union domestic situation in eastern Europe, NATO leadership gradually felt across Europe and even the world's strategic situation in fundamental changes, to maintain the original strategy has seem inappropriate.
At the London summit in July 1990, NATO leaders agreed on the need for major adjustments in the organization's basic strategic thinking and mission. NATO issued a new strategic guidance document in November 1991. In its overall assessment of the strategic environment, it believes that the threat from eastern Europe has faded with the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the Warsaw treaty organization. And because liberalism ideology and market economic system, the gradual expansion of the iron curtain on both sides of the political division has gradually offset for a long time, thus fundamentally shaken to the foundation of military confrontation. Due to the development of the European Community and the success of a series of arms control treaties between eastern and Western Europe, the level of military confrontation on both sides of the iron curtain has also been reduced to a certain extent. And crucially, step by step as Soviet troops evacuated from eastern Europe, NATO has been worried about the invasion of the Western Europe could happen is unlikely, may be facing security threats in the future is uncertain. Of course, because the former Soviet union still has a large stockpile of nuclear and conventional weapons, it will have a significant impact on the security of Europe and NATO. Ethnic conflicts and territorial disputes in central and eastern Europe will gradually become a major threat to the security of NATO members, especially at a time when such conflicts will involve external powers. NATO is also looking to the south of the region, west Asia and north Africa, whose value was underlined by the gulf war of 1990. In addition, NATO has begun to focus on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the threat of terrorism. But due to the change of the situation in Europe and the world at this time also in the process of happening, the end result is not very clear, so NATO of the strategic adjustment is relatively more obscure, no future missions and threats to make very clear demarcation.
The evolution of the European situation became clearer in the 1990s. Most eastern European countries have undergone massive democratization and market economy reforms, and relations with NATO have become increasingly close. As early as the 1994 summit, NATO decided to develop a "partnership for peace" to strengthen relations with central and eastern European countries in preparation for the next round of expansion. On the one hand, Russia was plunged into a prolonged recession and political turmoil, and its military strength was greatly weakened by a lack of funds and a loss of personnel. For NATO, the threat from the east is diminishing. On the other hand, many countries in central and eastern Europe have been caught in ethnic and religious conflicts due to the sudden openness and intensification of the complex ethnic conflicts that have been repressed. In particular, a series of civil wars in the former Yugoslavia have had a rather negative impact on security in the region. NATO is also involved in the civil war in bosnia and herzegovina and the kosovo conflict. It in the former Yugoslavia area geographically adjacent to central and eastern Europe are required to execute tasks to give necessary support, coupled with the transition of these nations have already applied to join the organization the favorable situation, prompting them to finally clear the eastward expansion of the strategic thinking.
At the NATO Washington summit in April 1999, the leaders unanimously adopted a new NATO strategy. The strategy confirmed the NATO during the cold war for their valuable contribution to the maintenance of peace in Europe and clearly believes that the threat of the cold war has disappeared, replaced by a new, more uncertain threat. NATO has stressed that it will pay more attention to instability in the Balkans. In fact, NATO is now not only highly involved in the bosnian crisis, but also launching massive air strikes against the south alliance during the kosovo war. This suggests that the most serious real threat to NATO at the time was political instability and economic recession in central and eastern Europe, and that its involvement in the region was deepening. At the time, terrorism was a concern, but it was not a priority for NATO operations. Since then peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia have not been strictly counter-terrorism operations, but their characteristics are similar to those of counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency operations. Overall, the 1991 and 1999 NATO strategy papers were relatively vague and lacked a clear understanding and emphasis on future threats, especially terrorist threats.
In 2001 the outbreak of the "911" incident of NATO in the post-cold war era has the most significant influence. Looking back on the trajectory of NATO after the incident, it can be said that it has prompted a fundamental change in the attitude of NATO on the issue of terrorism. In the day after the "911" incident, on September 12, 2001, NATO's decision, in article 5 of the performance of the north Atlantic treaty commitments about the group's collective self-defence, clearly shows the other member states and the United States united, determined by military means to fight terrorism. The alliance mechanism for cross-border flights was activated. NATO traditionally focused on is the European members of the security issues, the United States is more as a provider of security rather than consumers, yet it was the attacks against NATO and the strongest military power around the world, the United States. NATO's original intention is to rely on U.S. forces to defend Europe, article 5 of the results of the north Atlantic treaty was first put them into practice is to support the United States, this is unexpected events. And will attack from non-state actors as meet the requirements of the Washington treaty "armed attack", to the practice of collective self-defense, is beyond the respond as to the traditional "military invasion" understanding.
While NATO clearly show the positive support counterterrorism operations in the United States and the attitude of the start of the war in Afghanistan, but the United States in the war didn't make the organization become its counter-terrorism rely on the force at the core, in fact, the United States has formed a more meets the needs of their union. Its approach to NATO can be summed up as: we will contact you if we need to. Because of the long gap in military spending between the United States and NATO's European members, it has been difficult for the latter to give much substantive support to subsequent U.S. military operations abroad. The sum total of NATO's European members troops than the United States army, but due to long time in significant difference between the national defense expenditure, lack of European troops and American army the same global information gathering and strike capability, strategic project gap is obvious. Especially American combat operations in Afghanistan later geographically and far to Europe, the main operational way also is given priority to with air attacks over a long distance, this is not good at European armies. So basically the main military operations at all stages of the war in Afghanistan by the U.S. army alone, in addition to directly support the British operations, other NATO members only by airborne early warning and control system for the aerial reconnaissance and command provides certain help. In addition, European countries have deployed more naval forces in the Mediterranean to protect their maritime transport routes. In short, NATO's involvement in the main stages of the American-led war in Afghanistan is awkward. This was first because it launched the collective defence clause in response not to a previously feared mass invasion of its member states' territory, but to an unexpected emergency. Moreover, the huge gap in us and European military capabilities has left NATO's support for us operations at a very limited level. It is precisely because NATO's role in the main combat phase of the war in Afghanistan is not obvious that the decline of NATO is frequent.
However, as the end of the war in Afghanistan main battle phase, the taliban regime in Afghanistan, was overthrown by basic nationwide assistance provided by the NATO in Afghanistan is becoming increasingly important for the United States. Small, elite special forces and large air strikes may be enough to defeat an opponent on the ground, but they cannot afford the long-term task of maintaining stability in Afghanistan. The latter requires large ground forces, and sending European troops in the name of NATO can reduce the pressure on American troops on personnel. In January 2002, the United Nations adopted resolution 1386 in support of the establishment of an international security assistance force in the Kabul region. The force was made up of volunteer to participate in Afghanistan country, but because of this way doesn't adapt to the development of the situation, since NATO in August 2003 to take over the command of the international security assistance force in Afghanistan. In lO of the same year, the UN security council decided to extend the mandate of the force throughout Afghanistan. NATO's military operations have gone well beyond its defensive zones, but the subsequent terrorist attacks on Spain and Britain have made it all the more plausible to carry out the mission in NATO's name. The international security assistance force is mainly composed of other NATO Allies, the United States is only limited participation, at the same time the United States also separate leadership "operation enduring freedom", so in Afghanistan have two parallel operation.
In March 2003, the United States launched the invasion of Iraq. The war has not received unanimous support from NATO members because it is not closely linked to terrorist attacks. The United States has formed a coalition of countries that have volunteered for the war, but NATO has not been directly involved in the Iraq war. But, persuaded by the United States, NATO later provided personnel training for the war in Iraq. NATO is also widely involved in a range of international peacekeeping operations. As the war in Afghanistan is gradually stepped into the stage of mainly clear remnants of the enemy forces of counter-insurgency, America's military advantage is limited by the asymmetric warfare means, war also evolved towards increasingly stalemate. The Afghan war has increasingly resembled a classic guerrilla scenario. The United States and NATO found themselves in a situation where they could not be defeated, but where they could not eliminate their opponents completely. Since 2005, tensions in what had been a relatively calm Afghanistan have grown, with the taliban increasingly attacking civilians and foreign troops. Roadside bomb attacks have become its main means. It was a barbarous and difficult way to prevent it, and the attackers had no clear military purpose but to reduce the morale of the enemy by causing as many casualties as possible. NATO forces, Afghan government forces and local civilians have all suffered heavy casualties.
Taliban forces to enhance the main reasons are: first, the leadership has not been destroyed, just return to Pakistan's western mountains, which can keep the command of the action; Second, can hide the taliban in Pakistan's western mountains to save power, there have been large Numbers of pushtun inhabitants live, can provide effective shelter and supplies for the taliban, but U.S. and NATO cannot direct access to the region to clear, this is to give up the opportunity to attack opponents nests, and simply waiting for the enemy attack at favorable timing turned into an endless battles of defense; In addition, the 2003 war in Iraq, launched by the United States, intensified anti-American sentiment in the Muslim world and facilitated more support for the taliban.
In an effort to combat the more powerful and active taliban, international security assistance forces began moving toward southern Afghanistan in late 2005 to fight directly against the taliban's remnants. American troops to the participation of the international security assistance force began to increase, combat becomes more intense, the number of foreign troops in Afghanistan has increased rapidly, from the rapid rise of more than ten thousand people at the beginning of 2002 to 2007, more than forty thousand people. In addition, the international security assistance force has become the main force in the war, and the U.S. military has also started to participate in relevant operations. In 2006, the unified command was established between operation enduring freedom and the international security assistance force to coordinate their operations. As security has deteriorated, divisions within NATO over the operation have grown.
想要了解更多英国留学资讯或者需要英国代写，请关注51Due英国论文代写平台，51Due是一家专业的论文代写机构，专业辅导海外留学生的英文论文写作，主要业务有essay代写、paper代写、assignment代写。在这里，51Due致力于为留学生朋友提供高效优质的留学教育辅导服务，为广大留学生提升写作水平，帮助他们达成学业目标。如果您有essay代写需求，可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。
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