1. WTO保障措施協定
2. GATT-1994 1994年的關稅與貿易總協定 (包含附件一)
1.搞清楚必須要拿來比較的FTA有哪些。
*東協10+3的FTA是必須要加以探討的重要條約。
*北美自由貿易協議需要嗎?
*要先收集有哪些FTA再進一步選擇!!
2.proposal要啥時提出?
*12月底先趕一份初稿給老師?
*最晚學期末前給老師。
3.想要比較的到底是FTA的哪一個面相?
*原產地問題
*紛爭解決
*防衛條款
4.WTO網站可以找到大部分需要的資訊跟條款本文(IN English!)
目前已看完的：
超時空世紀オーガス
THE ビッグオー first season
THE ビッグオー second season
OVERMAN キングゲイナー
預備要看的：
創聖のアクエリオン
ブレンパワード
∀ガンダム
超時空要塞マクロス
超時空要塞マクロスⅡ－LOVERS AGAIN－
マクロスプラス
マクロスゼロ
マクロス7
マクロス ダイナマイト7
ふしきの海のナティア
聖戦士ダンバイン
ZZガンダム
心得預計要打的主題：
THE ビッグオー -記憶和想像的模糊邊界-
超時空世紀オーガス -平行世界題材的出發點-
創聖のアクエリオン -隱藏於機器人中的主題是愛情-
富野由悠季復活三部曲：
∀ガンダム (副標未定)
ブレンパワード (副標未定)
OVERMAN キングゲイナー -人與人的距離和溫度-
Macross Series -The beginning of the Legend-
Macross Series -The follower-
Macross Series -Let's Rock !-
Macross Series -A New start of the Legend-
----
看來這個暑假不會沒事做 XD
如果我雙修有申請上的話.....orz
(沒上就要準備考試了...哈哈)
議題：Pre-implanation Genetic Diagnosis對人類基因多樣性造成的影響
一、What's the problems：
Pre-implanation Genetic Diagnosis(以下簡稱PDG)是一種檢驗並預防因基因異常而引發的疾病的方法。PGD是目前最普遍使用的異常基因檢驗方法，檢驗在試管中受精的胚胎，當胚胎成長至eight-cell stage時加以檢驗、分析，如果檢驗結果沒有嚴重的遺傳性疾病，則將此胚胎植入女性的子宮。由於PGD只是選擇好的胚胎細胞；淘汰帶有遺傳性疾病的胚胎，並沒有用任何人工的方式去影響DNA的序列，因此PGD受到世人普遍的接受，而這樣的方法使得遺傳性疾病帶原者能夠安心的繁衍下一代。目前PGD由於技術上的限制，因此只能夠檢定由一、兩個染色體引起的遺傳性疾病，若是牽扯到多個染色體交互影響所產生的疾病則無法檢測出來，不過PGD依舊提供我們一個面對遺傳性疾病的機會和方法。
但是PGD卻引發了一些爭論。
有人提出PGD是一種優生學的概念，當PGD技術越來越好，越來越普及，當眾人都有能力去使用這樣的技術時，一些被我們認為是"疾病"的遺傳性疾病會漸漸的消失，而透過這種人擇的過程，我們"人類"的基因庫將會越來越小，基因多樣性也將隨之變小。在這種情況下，人類很可能會因為單一個環境變遷或個別的自然災難而面臨滅種的危機！
二、Relative informations：
生物多樣性(Bio-diversity)是什麼？為什麼會有這樣的疑慮呢？這個就要從生物學的觀點來說明了。在長達數億萬年的漫長歲月中，地球上的生命為了適應各種不同的環境，透過基因的變異(genetic variation)，與天擇(nature selection)的作用，逐漸演化出適應於各種生態體系的各式物種(species)。豐富的生命，構成了生物多樣性的基礎。一般而言，生物多樣性從微觀到巨觀，可分成三個層面來思考。第一個就是基因多樣性，生存在地球上的所有生命的遺傳基因，可以共同構成一個巨大的基因庫。其次則為物種多樣性，由所有不同的物種所共同組成的種源庫。此外，各式各樣的物種與其所生存的外在環境，也共同組成不同的生態體系。為什麼我們要努力維持生物多樣性？它的重要性以及意義又是什麼？這是因為，在自然的狀況之下，一個生態系中的生物種類越多，組成越複雜，整個生態系統就不會因為少數幾個物種的變動而產生重大的改變。生物多樣性可說是是穩定自然環境的基礎之一。但是，目前因人類對環境的過度干擾，造成生物快速而大量的滅絕使得生物多樣性成為最近常被提出的生態問題之一。人類這幾年來的快速發展，使得許多野生生物失去了他們的棲息地，有很多物種已經絕種，有更多物種現在正瀕臨絕種。除此之外，由於人類的交通方面的發展，使得很多物種從他們原本的棲息地被帶到了另一個地方，在那裏他們沒有天敵，因此快速的蓬勃發展，並威脅到了原本該地物種的生存。這使得生物多樣性的快速減少，失去適應環境變化的可能性。
所以由此觀點看來PGD的方法的確有可能促成用人擇的方式加速某些“被認為”是不良的基因組型的消失，進而造成人類這個物種的基因多樣性減少。這會造成什麼樣的問題呢？從鐮刀型貧血的例子當中我們能夠得到答案。
鐮刀型貧血的病原是基因學和藥學上很普遍的問題。目前最廣為接受的說法是，鐮刀型細胞是由於一個突變基因製造出與正常不同的血紅素的原因。異型合子的基因型 (HbA/HbS) 稱做鐮刀型細胞的「帶原者」，他的血紅素有一些是正常的，有一些是不正常的，所以在他們體內紅血球並不呈鐮刀狀；同型合子(HbS/HbS) 絕大部分的紅血球是鐮刀狀的，有嚴重的貧血，有時會致命。還有很小一群鐮刀性貧血患者是鐮刀細胞基因的異型合子並且又有其他血紅素合成遺傳異常基因。.在某些地區，鐮刀型細胞其實是蠻普遍的：非洲人：20% 以上，甚至 40% 希臘：17%，印度土著：30%。只要有鐮刀型細胞，就有鐮刀型貧血症出現。以前認為鐮刀型貧血症在非洲人是很少見的，但最近的研究發現並不然。在不斷因為鐮刀型貧血症死亡移除基因的作用下，鐮刀型細胞基因如何維持這麼高的頻率？大部分鐮刀型細胞患者是同型合子 HbS/HbS，也就是說，一位患者沒有繁殖成功，就是每代失去兩個鐮刀型細胞基因，假設鐮刀型細胞 (異型合子 HbA/HbS) 在自然選汰下是中性的，那麼失去的基因必須要以 10-1 order 的突變率補充回來，這比自然狀態下的突變率大了 3000 多倍！這當然不能作為解釋的理由！在 1949 年的非洲工作中發現鐮刀型細胞出現頻率高的地區，瘧疾也比其他地方多，烏干達不同地區的統計數字支持這個看法，同時，鐮刀型細胞在義大利和希臘是蠻普遍的，但在其他歐洲國家就很少，而在希臘又以有瘧疾的地區頻率最高。還有其他報導也都支持鐮刀型細胞和瘧疾之間有關係，鐮刀型細胞對瘧疾的感染有一定程度的保護作用，因此使在瘧疾區有鐮刀型細胞者有了選汰上的優勢。
從以上的論述我們知道，一些基因帶來的不良影響，在我們的社會情境當中可能會被認為是疾病，但是我們並不能確定它一定是不好的，有可能以後的環境會需要這種基因組型來維繫人類的存活也不一定。
三、Conclusions：
整體來看PGD的確提供了一個基因多樣性減少的可能性，不過這樣的可能性成立的條件十分嚴苛。首先必須是這個技術進步到能夠讓世人都能夠很方便且迅速的使用，而且收費要讓大眾有能力支付。(目前執行一次PGD要價一萬五千美元，折合新台幣四十八萬九千三百元。) 並且必須是大家都去使用這樣的技術才會造成基因快速消失。(這又是另一個難以達成的條件，因為要絕大多數的人都採用試管受精的方法孕育下一代也是有難度。)此外，由於最近生物多樣性的問題受到大眾的關注，所以很多保存生物多樣性的措施和方法都在發展。像現在已經絕跡的天花病毒也有保存在研究室內，確保以後可能會有需要用到它的時候。現在正在推行的臍帶血保存，保存精子或卵子也都能夠使得一些基因的資訊得以保存下來供後人使用。此外從PGD的執行方式看來，較會影響到的是由顯性基因所造成的遺傳性疾病基因組型，而隱性基因造成的遺傳性疾病基因組型則較沒有影響。
總而言之，PGD有機會造成基因多樣性減少，但是形成這樣結果的條件卻是十分嚴苛的。除此之外，大自然中無時無刻都有著各式各樣的事件發生，我們的基因也有機率藉由突變而加它的多樣性。所以PGD要造成基因多樣性的減少是一個非常困難的事情，甚至可以說是接近不可能。
data list FILE = 'd:\2005\性別紙筆IAT\生活態度.txt'
/m1 to m21 1-21 s1_1 to s1_20 23-42 s2_1 to s2_20 44-63 s3_1 to s3_40 65-104
s4_1 to s4_20 106-125 s5_1 to s5_40 127-166 t1 to t16 168-183 c1 to c5 185-189
d1 to d5 190-194 id 203-212(a) female 213.
compute p_pleasure=m3+m8++m12+m13+m14+m16.
compute p_engage=m1+m6+m7+m9+m10.
compute p_meaning=m2+m4+m5+m11+m15.
compute diener=sum( m17 to m21).
recode t5 (1=5)(2=4)(4=2)(5=1).
compute and_f = sum(t2,t4,t6,t8,t10,t13,t15,t16).
compute and_m = sum(t1,t3,t5,t7,t9,t11,t12,t14).
recode c1 c5 d2 d3 d4 (1=7) (2=6) (3=5) (5=3) (6=2) (7=1).
compute f_ster=sum(c1 to c5).
compute m_ster=sum(d1 to d5).
compute ster= sum(f_ster, m_ster).
〈Getting out of emotional mud: the mediating role of self-clarity〉
Abstract:
Past studies have shown a reliable negative correlation between Ambivalence over emotional expression (AEE) and well-being. Its mechanism, however, remains unclear. The current studies examined the mediation effect of self-clarity on the relationship between AEE and Well-being. The results of study one confirmed our hypothesis with a significant complete self-clarity mediation effect. However, this result might be confounded by self-esteem given the high correlation between self-clarity and self-esteem. Thus, in study two, self-esteem and self-clarity were entered into the regression equation to examine their unique effects. Results showed that the unique mediation effect of self-clarity remained significant over and above the effect of self esteem. These results indicate that to enhance emotional regulation capabilities and to improve psychological well-being, it is necessary to establish a cognitive monitoring mechanism. The educational applications were also discussed.
Introduction
In development of a relationship, people often encounter unpleasant situations, which in order motivate the needs of communication and emotional expression. Past studies have shown that good communication can increase gratification and endurance of a relationship,on the other hand, bad communicaion will decrease gratification of a relationship and even end up a relationship(Dindia & Porterfield , 1985). Under this narration, almost every early study indicated that " It's healthy for one to express himself/herself and unhealthy for one not expressing himself/herself " (cf.Pennebaker , 1985). Pennebaker(1985) indicated that individual have active inhibition toward emotional expression which cause the individual not expressing his/her emotion. So we don't know how to express our emotion in order to be healthy, unless we can categorize the patterns of emotional expression. King & Emmons (1990) indicated the concept of ambivalence over emotional expression (AEE) to describe the psychological mechanism behind the ambivalence of emotional expression. They thought experiencing AEE will make individual feel conflict, which affect negatively toward one's health. There are three conditions that will cause AEE. 1. One wants to express his/her emotion, but suppress the need of expression. 2. One expresses his/her emotion, but he/she was not really wanted to do that. 3. One had already expressed his/her emotion, but regreted for doing that. Past studies emphasized the negetive effect AEE have on subjective well-being (SWB) and health, which means individual who higher in AEE may also lower in SWB and have more mental or biological disorders (King & Emmons, 1990; Tucker, 1999), but its mechanism is still unknown.
We thought that AEE is a trait ; a trend, and it's not easy and almost impossible to change an individual's trait in a short time, so if we want to improve one's SWB and mental disorder, it's better to search for the mediation mechanism and modified SWB by controlling the mediator. We thought "self " is the basis of an individual's social interaction and it's also the most organized knowledge social psychology use to understand individuals' social behavior. So the present study planed to use self-concept to understand the mediation mechanism between AEE and SWB.
Self and Self-Concept Clarity
In the past ten years, psychologists changed their point of view on the research of self-concept. They used to thought self-concept is a single、united and stable concept, so the focus of self-concept study enphasized single self-concept, especially the positive and negative contents of self. These days, psychologists tend to refer self-concept as a combination of differnet self. Therefore, individuals can act according to the situations they are facing ; which means self has many different dimensions, and each of them is part of the complete self (Altrocchi, 1999). Since the concept of multiple self was established, researchers began to study the components of self, tried to understand how different dimensions of self can exist in an individual.Among the theories, we thought Self-Concept Clarity theory has the best capabilitiy of helping us to understand the mediation mechanism between AEE and SWB.
According to Eriksion (1968), in the progress of establishing self-identity, individual will first search into multiple characters and different belief, after a great deal of search individual will develop high acceptance toward certain characters and point of view. Thus self-identity was established. To understand the relaitonship between self-concept clarity and self-identity, Narloch (1998) surveied how college students' self-identity developed by examining their self-concept clarity. Results showed that individuals who had searched and developed well-clarified self-indentity have the highest self-concept clarity, on the contrary, individuals who did a great deal of search but still not develop good self-identity showed the lowest self-concept clarity.
Baumgardner (1990) thought the more one's sure about his/her traits the more he/she feel he/she can gain control over the future. This phenomenon make one feel positive and have confidence in himself/herself. This study showed that clarity of self-concept can increase individual's positive feelings. Other studies also indicated the correlation between self-concept and positive feelings, for example, Pennebaker (1989) found out, those who wrote down or talked about their past, especially those who had trauma, had significant improvement on their health condition after they revealed their experience. He concluded the action of taling or writing about individual's past could help individual develop his/her self-identity, thus caused positive feelings. Sande、Goethals and Radloff (1988) thought individual can do better when choosing what to do according to what he/her encounter, if he/her had high self-concept clarity. Trope and Ben-Yair's study also indicated that people will try to gain certainty of their abilities in order to feel gaining control over the future.
Setterlund and Niedenthal's (1993) study pointed out the relationship between self-concept clarity and prototype matching strategy. Their result indicated that individuals with high self-concept clarity tended to use prototype matching strategy when they made decisions. Those had high self-concept clarity were sure about their own traits,therefore they could avoid situations they're not fit in and could get into environment which they could develop their talent, and this could make individuals feel gaining more control over their future and have more positive feeing and confidence in themselves (Baumgardner, 1990). Baumgardner also indicated that those with lower self-concept clarity were more influenced by the situation they were facing. When there result was worse than expected, then these with lower self-concept clarity tended to experience more negative feelings.
Campbell's study (1990) have shown that low self-concept clarity would made individual percept daily life events in a more negative view, thus made them easier affected by daily life events and had more mood swings. They also tended to regard negative events as important things to themselves.This thought was agree with Baumgardner (1993). Baumgardner thought low self-concept clarity would make individuals easier affected by negative imformations in the environment, consequently cause decrease of self esteem. Thus we can infer individuals with low self-concept clarity were easier affected by negative life events then cause the negative feelings.
According to past studies, there is a significant correlation between self-concept clarity and subjective well-being, thus the present study decided to use self-concept clarity as the mediator to examine the mediation mechanism between SWB and AEE. The goal of the following studies was to examine the mediation effect of self-clarity on AEE and SWB.
Study 1
In study 1, we used self-rating questionnaires to examine subjects' self-concept clarity、AEE and SWB, and tested their correlation and self-concept clarity's mediation effect. We hypothesized self-concept clarity had mediation effect on both AEE and SWB, so we expected each pair of these three variables should has significant correlation. AEE should has significant negative correlation with both SWB and self-concept clarity. SWB and self-concept should correlate positively with each other. We hypothesized self-concept clarity is the mediator of AEE and SWB's mediation mechanism, according to mediation analysis, if we entered self-concept clarity into the regression equation then the significant effect of AEE as a predictor should turn into insignificant.
Method
1. Participants:
Subjects were 168 undergraduate students in National Taiwan University who took part in general psychology course. Paricipants filled out questionnaires through internet. All subjects received extra course credit for participation.
2. Measures:
Self-concept clarity.
Campell and colleagues' (1991) Self-Concept Clarity Scale was used to measure how confidently participants were able to descrive themselves. The 20 scale items include statements such as "I spend a lot of time wondering what kind of person I really am," "Even if I wanted to, I don't think I could tell someone what I am really like," "In general I know who I am and where I am headed in life," and "My beliefs about myself seem to change frequently." Participants respond to these questions using a 5-point scale, with (1) indicating "strongly agree" and (5) indicating "strongly disagree." Campbell and colleagues (1991) demonstrated adequate reliability and validity for the self-concept clarity measure. Within this sample, the scale also obtained adequate reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .78).
Ambivalence Over Emotional Expressiveness Questionnaire.
This 28-item scale (King & Emmons, 1990) measures ambivalence about revealing versus hiding emotions.(e.g., "I want to express my emotion honestly but I am afraid that it may cause me embarrassment or hurt."). All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) The AEQ has demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a recorded reliability Cronbach's alpha of 0.89 (King &Ｅmmons, 1990). In current study, the scale also obtained adequate reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .941).
Subjective well-being.
Subjective well-being was measured by a short version of the Chinese Happiness Inventory (Lu and Shih, 1997b). It pertains to general aspects of subjective well-being, such as positive affect, (lack of ) negative affect, and life satisfaction, as well as culture-bond aspects generated from a qualitative study (Lu and Shih, 1997a). In the present study, the reliability of this scale was 0.85 A higher score indicated a higher level of reported happiness.
Result:
The software SPSS was used to conduct the data analysis. First we looked at the correlation between each pair of the variables. Correlation between AEE and SWB was -.306 (p<.05). Correlation between AEE and SCC was -.516 (p<.001). Correlation between SCC and SWB was .525 (p<.001). Each pair of the variables had a significant correlation, and all the patterns of these correlations were consisted with our hypotheses.
Next, we examined self-concept clarity's mediation effect by mediation analysis. We first composed a regression equation, the dependent variable was AEE and the independent variable was SWB, then we examine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The effect of AEE on SWB was significant (Beta = -.348, p < .01). Second, we composed another regression equation and added an extra indepent variable, self-concept clarity, then the effect of on SWB changed from significant to insignificant (Beta = -.097, p >.05). And the effect of self-concept clarity on SWB was significant (Beta = .468, p < .01).
Discussion:
The result of study 1 was consistent with our expectation, the mediation effect of self-concept clarity on AEE and SWB was significant. This meant AEE's negative effect on SWB can be controlled if we had controlled self-concept clarity. Individuals with low self-clarity were more likely to be affected by the negative effect of AEE. On the other hand, individuals with high self-concept clarity were less likely to be affected by AEE.
Although the result was consistent with our expectation, still there was a unsolved question left. Baumgardner (1993) thought low self-concept clarity would make individuals easier affected by negative imformations in the environment, consequently cause decrease of self-esteem and the raise of negative emotion and feelings. So we could infer the mediation effect of self-concept clarity was due to the effect of self-esteem. In study 2 we discussed the role self-esteem play in the mediation mechanism between AEE and SWB.
Study 2
Among all the self-indexes, self-esteem is the most global and the most developed index. Self-esteem also has high positive correlation with all positive self-indexes. Study 1 have shown significant mediation effect of self-concept clarity, however, this result might be confounded by self-esteem given the high correlation between self-clarity and self-esteem. Thus, in study two, self-esteem and self-clarity were entered into the regression equation to examine their unique effects. We expected self-concept clarity should has a unique mediation effect and this mediation effect wouldn't be confounded by other self-indexes.
Method
1. Participants:
Subjects in study 2 were 106 undergraduate students in National Taiwan University who took part in social psychology course. Paricipants filled out questionnaires in class. All subjects received extra course credit for participation.
2. Measures
Self-concept clarity.
Campell and colleagues' (1991) Self-Concept Clarity Scale was used to measure how confidently participants were able to descrive themselves. The 20 scale items include statements such as "I spend a lot of time wondering what kind of person I really am," "Even if I wanted to, I don't think I could tell someone what I am really like," "In general I know who I am and where I am headed in life," and "My beliefs about myself seem to change frequently." Participants respond to these questions using a 7-point scale, with (1) indicating "strongly disagree" and (7) indicating "strongly agree." Campbell and colleagues (1991) demonstrated adequate reliability and validity for the self-concept clarity measure. Within this sample, the scale also obtained adequate reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .93).
Self-esteem
Rosenberg's (1965) Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure participants' assessment of their self-worth. The 10 items of this scale are designed to capture how an individual evaluates his / her self-worth (e.g., "I feel I have a number of good qualities"). Participants respond to these questions using a 5-point scale, with (1) indicating "strongly disagree" and (5) indicating "strongly agree." The scale has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity in other studies and obtained a satisfactory score for reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .88)
Ambivalence Over Emotional Expressiveness Questionnaire.
This 28-item scale (King & Emmons, 1990) measures ambivalence about revealing versus hiding emotions.(e.g., "I want to express my emotion honestly but I am afraid that it may cause me embarrassment or hurt."). All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) The AEQ has demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a recorded reliability Cronbach's alpha of 0.89 (King &Ｅmmons, 1990).
Subjective well-being.
Subjective well-being was measured by a short version of the Chinese Happiness Inventory (Lu and Shih, 1997b). It pertains to general aspects of subjective well-being, such as positive affect, (lack of ) negative affect, and life satisfaction, as well as culture-bond aspects generated from a qualitative study (Lu and Shih, 1997a). A higher score indicated a higher level of reported happiness.
Result:
The software SPSS was used to conduct the data analysis. Result showed correlation between self-esteem and self-concept clarity was .629 (p<.01). Correlation between AEE and SWB was -.360 (p<.01). Correlation between AEE and SCC was -.468 (p<.001). Correlation between SCC and SWB was .552 (p<.001).
We also examined the mediation effect of self-concept on the relationship between AEE and SWB again in study 2. The result was consistent with study 1. We first composed a regression equation, the dependent variable was AEE and the independent variable was SWB, then we examine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The effect of AEE on SWB was significant (Beta = -.360, p < .01). Second, we composed another regression equation and added an extra indepent variable, self-concept clarity, then the effect of on SWB changed from significant to insignificant (Beta = -.104, p >.05). And the effect of self-concept clarity on SWB was significant (Beta = .547, p < .01).
We composed the third regression equation and entered the third indepent variable, self-esteem, then the effect of AEE was still insignificant (Beta = -.061, p > .05), and the effects of self-concept clarity and self-esteem were both significant. (SCC Beta =.300, p< .05. self-esteem Beta = .405, p <.01).
When we change the order of entering self-esteem and self-concept clarity into regression equation, the pattern of the result was the same as the result above (see table 1 & table 2).
Discussion:
Results of study 2 showed that the unique mediation effect of self-clarity remained significant over and above the effect of self esteem. The result also showed self-esteem had a significant mediation effect on the relationship between AEE and well-being. We assumed that both of the variables had a mediation effect on AEE and well-being, and given both of their mediation effect were significant in the regression equation, we assumed there exist more than one mediation mechanism between AEE and well-being.
General Discussion
According to study 1 and study 2, we assumed self-concept clarity has mediation effect on the relationship between AEE and well-being, and there exist more than one mediation mechanism between AEE and well-being. Self-esteem has another unique mediation effect on the relationship on AEE and well-being. Result of this study not only enabled us to know more about the relationship between AEE and well-being but also enabled us to know how to modify the negative effect of AEE on well-being. We can reduce the negative effect of AEE on well-being by increasing individuals' clarity of self-concept. These results indicate that to enhance emotional regulation capabilities and to improve psychological well-being, it is necessary to establish a cognitive monitoring mechanism.
These studies also indicated that the mediaion mechanism between AEE and well-being could be more complex than we had thought. Self-esteem and self-concept clarity had their own unique mediation effect on the relationship between AEE and well-being, this meant there could exist more than two mediation mechanisms between these two variables. We can try to discover more mediation mechanisms between AEE and well-being, and found the most efficient mediator in the near future, helping us to develop the best strategy to increace psychological well-being.
For educational applications, programs designed to increase self-concept clarity is necessary for improving students' psychological well-being in order to prevent our offsprings from the threat of psychological disorders.
〈跳出情緒的泥沼：自我概念清晰度的中介效果。〉
一、前言&研究目的
過去關於情緒表達衝突的研究一致指出，情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感有顯著負向關連性，但其中的機制卻依然未知。本研究的目的在於找出情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感間的中介機制，首先探討自我概念清晰度作為中介變項的效果(研究一)，其次檢驗自尊是否會混淆此中介效果(研究二)。
二、文獻回顧
(一) 情緒表達衝突
在人際關係的進展過程中，雙方時常會因為一些相處上發生的事前，而引發不愉快的情緒感受，並且產生表達和溝通的需求，研究通常顯示在關係中若有良好的溝通則可以提昇關係滿意度及關係維持，若在溝通上出問題，則會造成滿意度低落甚至分手 (Dindia & Porterfield , 1985)。在這樣的論述下，早先研究結果通常一面倒的顯示"表達"是健康的，"不表達"就是不健康的說法 (ef.Pennebaker , 1985)。但Pennebaker(1985)提出個人對於情緒表達會有主動抑制 (active inhibition) 的強迫性想法，導致不表達的行為結果，而且單只考慮表達性是不夠的，倘若不能區分出什麼樣的表達型態，就難以確定怎樣的表達才是真正對健康才是有益的。所以King & Emmons(1990)在單純的表達行為之外，更提出了情緒表達衝突的概念，來描述情緒表達衝突行為背後的心理機制。他們認為當出現情緒表達的衝突時，正如同目標間的衝突一樣，會使個體感到矛盾或衝突的情緒，對健康產生影響。情緒表達衝突(Ambivalence over emotion expression，簡稱AEE)，指的是個人情緒表達型態的衝突經驗。這種通突的發生，最主要的情況有三種：1.個體想要表達，卻抑制住想表達的欲望。2.個體以表達，卻不是真的想表達。3.個體已經表達，卻後悔這麼做。因此，情緒表達的衝突，可以說是想要表達和不表達之間的相互競爭。
根據 King & Emmons (1990) 的想法，情緒表達衝突就是把個人外顯行為上的情緒表達與不表達做了更深一層的區隔，可以看出一個人在不表達的外顯行為之下，是否有內心的衝突在作用著。過去探討情緒表達衝突的文獻，均著重於情緒表達衝突對幸福感和身心健康的影響，即情緒表達衝突程度較高者可能相對應主觀幸福感較低、有較多生理症狀(King & Emmons， 1990 ；Tucker et al. ，1999)。但卻鮮少探討情緒表達衝突和這些心理、生理指標之間的影響機制。
筆者認為，情緒表達衝突是一種傾向、特質。改變一個人的特質並不簡單，在短時間內改變特質是近乎不可能的。所以改善有情緒表達衝突的人主觀幸福感低和有負面生理症狀的這些現象也就難以從改善情緒表達衝突去下手。因此筆者想要去研究情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介機制，藉由控制中介變項使得個體可以有更高的主觀幸福感，也就是活得更快樂。筆者認為，自我是一個個體在社會行動中最為根本的依據，同時也是社會心理學用來理解個體社會行動累積最具有系統性的知識。因此，本研究擬由自我的角度作為理解情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感中介機制的基本架構。以下將簡要的回顧自我清晰度的相關研究。
(二) 自我與自我清晰度
近十幾年來，心理學者對於自我概念的研究興趣產生了劇烈的轉變，先前傾向視自我概念 (self-concept) 為統合的、單一的，即一個穩定、一般的自我，所以研究焦點都是單一的自我概念的面向，並且著重於自我內容之正負向狀態。近年來的學者則傾向將自我視為流動與建構的歷程，同時也具有多元的面貌。因此，當人們在面對不同社會情境時不會只是表現出同一個單衣的自我面向，而是會隨著社會情境的變動，表現出不同的行動傾向。亦即，人有很多不同的自我面向，這些都屬於自我的一部份(Altrocchi，1999)。而一旦多元自我的現象逐漸明確，對於自我的論述，就逐漸的轉而注意所以自我的結構因素，來看多元的面貌如何可能同時存在於一個個體之內。而在眾多的理論當中，研究者以為「自我概念清晰度」(self-concept clarity)應當是最具有潛力的一個概念架構。
根據Erikson (1968) 的理論，在確立個人自我認同的歷程中，個人會先對於多樣的角色及信念體系進行探索，在經歷大量的探索之後，個人逐漸對特定的角色及觀點發展出高度的認同，自我認同便於焉確立。關於自我清晰度與自我認同發展歷程的關係，Narloch (1998) 以大學生的「自我清晰度」檢視其自我認同的發展程度，結果發現在經歷了探索行為之後發展出明確自我認同的個體，擁有最高的自我清晰程度，而經歷大量探索行為但尚未發展出明確認同的個體，則擁有最低的自我確定程度。
Baumgardner (1990) 認為，對於自我特質感到越確定，將越能對未來的結果產生一種控制感，進而對自我產生正向情感以及信心。他在實驗中請受試者先對自己的情感狀態及個人特質進行評量，一個星期之後，再為每位受試者準備一封描述其人格的文件，並對確定和不確定的敘述進行操弄。結果發現，收到確定回饋的受試者會有較多的正向情感，這表示若給予個人關於其自我概念的明確敘述，將會引發個人的正向情感。總而言之，對於自我的確定感可以提升個人對於自我的正向感受。許多其他研究也都指出自我概念的清晰度與正向感受之間的關連性。例如，Pennebaker (1989) 的研究發現，那些談論或寫下他們過去經驗的人，尤其是過去的受創經驗的人，在這樣的自我揭露之後的一段時間，其健康情形有明顯的改善。他推論因為談論或寫下自己的過去，有助於個人更加確定其自我認同，也因此產生了控制感和正向的感受。Sande、Goethals 和 Radloff (1988)則認為當個人對自己擁有哪些特質感到確定時，個人在特定的情境中便能發揮較多的行為選擇。Trope 和 Ben-Yair的研究也發現，人們會試圖獲取對於其能力的確定感，以獲得對於未來情境的控制感。
此外，Setterlund 與 Niedenthal (1993) 的研究也指出自我概念清晰度與使用 prototype matching 策略的關係。他們的研究結果發現，自我概念清晰度高的人，在做選擇時傾向於使用 prototype matchiing策略。這是因為自我清晰度高的人，由於對於自己個人特質普遍感到確定，因此在面對不同的選項時，有著很清楚的參照標準，便較容易以 prototype matching 的策略來選擇，而清晰度低的人，其自我概念較不清楚，就難以將自我特質與特定情境的「代表人物」特質相比較，從而在不同的情境選項中做出選擇。而這樣的選擇策略會帶來什麼樣的結果呢？自我清晰度高的人，對於個人特質感到十分明確，因此就能夠選擇進入適當的情境，來充分利用所具備的個人特質。例如，當一個人很清楚自己同時具備幽默和懶惰的特質時，他便能夠選擇適當的社會情境，藉由投身於那樣的情境中，讓自己幽默的特質充份發揮，另一方面，他也能夠盡量避免出現在要求努力的社會情境中，這些都可以讓個人對於所處情境獲致更多的控制感，並解擁有更多正向情感及自信心 (Baumgardner，1990)。相反的，自我清晰度低的人會難以決定是否要進入該情境，或是對他所做的決定很沒把握。他們所進入的情境，常常並不是最「適得其所」的，亦即在所處的情境中，他們最終可能沒有什麼機會展現自己所擅長的特質，或是會被要求發揮所欠缺的特質。而當個人所處情境與其主要特質差異過大時，他們便容易接收到種種與其自我概念不一致的訊息，因此對於環境的控制感可能會降低 (Swann，1990)，負面情感以及對自我的不確定感可能會升高 (Baumgardner，1993)。Baumeister也指出，自我概念不確定的人，通常較容易受到所處情境的影響，而當情境或事件的發展不如當初的預期時，就更容易經歷負面的情緒。
Campbell (1990) 的研究指出，低自我確定會使得個人以較為負向的眼光看待日常生活事件，同時較易受到日常生活事件的影響，而有較多的情緒波動，他們也傾向將生活中所發生的負向事件視為對自己是比較重要的。這個看法和 Baumgardner (1993) 不謀而合，Baumgardner 認為自我概念的不確定會導致個人更容易受到所處情境中的負面資訊影響，進而導致自尊的降低。因此，我們可以推測，低自我清晰度的人在日常生活的情境中，較容易受到負面事件的影響，而產生種種負向感受。
由上面的論述，我們看到自我概念清晰度確實和主觀幸福感有顯著的關連性，所以本研究決定以自我概念清晰度作為中介變項來探討主觀幸福感和情緒表達衝突的中介機制。
三、研究一
在研究一中，我們使用自陳量表檢驗自我清晰度、情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感，並且檢驗三者間的相關並檢驗自我清晰度是否是情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介變項。本研究假設自我概念清晰度為情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介變項，故預期此三變項間兩兩有一顯著相關，且自我概念清晰度與主觀幸福感應有一正向關連性，相反的與情緒表達衝突則應該有一顯著負向關連性，而主觀幸福感和情緒表達衝突有一負向關連性。因為我們假設自我概念清晰度為情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介變項，所以當我們用情緒表達衝突預測主觀幸福感的時候，若加入自我概念清晰度的影響，則情緒表達衝突的預測能力皆應被自我概念清晰度給取代，反之亦然。
(一) 方法
1.參與者與施測程序：
研究一的參與者為國立台灣大學修習「普通心理學」的學生約168人。是自願參加施測以獲得課堂加分。施測的方式是以網路施測的方式讓參與者在網路上分別填寫情緒表達衝突量表、自我概念清晰度量表和主觀幸福感量表。
2.測量工具：
自我概念清晰度量表
自我概念清晰度量表(Campbell et al. 1996) 主要測量個體的自我概念結構是否清楚、一致且穩定，亦即個體對自我的瞭解是否清晰、明確。是否一致且不相互矛盾，且是否具有跨時間的穩定性。題目如「有時候我對別人的瞭解，更甚於對自己的瞭解。」、「我對於自己的看法常常會互相矛盾」、「我對於自己的看法可能今天是一種，但明天又是另一種。」量表共有十二題，因素結構顯示為單一因素，以李克氏六點量表評量，1代表非常不符合，6代表非常符合，在反向計分之後，分數越高表示自我概念越清晰，量表內部一致性信度為.89
情緒表達衝突量表
採用李怡真(2002)翻譯自King & Emmons 的情緒衝突量表(Ambivalence over emotion expression questionnaire, AEQ)。此量表共28題，所有題目的架構，均由兩個衝突的想法構成，這也是情緒表達衝突最核心的想法。主要的題目類型可以分成三種：一、掩飾情緒(如：我會努力保持臉上的微笑，來讓他覺得我很快樂，即使我心裡並不是如此)。二、表達了之後卻感到不舒服(如：當我對他表達生氣的情緒之後，我會覺得有罪惡感)。三、對於要不要分享感覺的衝突(如：我通常會試著隱藏在內心的害怕和感覺，但有時候我也會想要讓他知道)。由於題目本身具有複雜的概念存在，為避免受試者填答上的混淆，所有題目都設計為正向題，不需反向計分。內部一致性係數 Cronbach alpha 為0.89 ，六週後的再測信度為0.78。
主觀幸福感量表
採用陸洛&施建彬(1995)編制的「中國人幸福感量表」為研究工具。量表題目來源分為兩大部分，其中28題翻譯、修訂自 Argyle (1987)的牛津幸福量表(Oxford Happiness Inventory，簡稱 OHI)、生活滿意量表及正向情感量表組成。另二十題由陸洛&施建彬自編。在理論建構上，本量表題項不僅包括世界共通性的幸福感來源，也包含了華人特有的幸福感來源，其內部一致性 Combach's alpha 係數為.95 ，再測信度為.66。之後此量表又發展出精簡版的量表，共有二十題。與完整版量表的相關為.97，P< .05 ，故本研究採取精簡版版本。
(二) 結果
用SPSS統計分析軟體分析資料。首先以Bivariate correlation 的方法來看各個變項之間的關連性(分析結果請參照表一)，結果顯示主觀幸福感和情緒表達衝突有 -.306的顯著相關、主觀幸福感和自我概念清晰度有.525的顯著相關，情緒表達衝突和自我概念清晰度有-.518的顯著相關。每個變項間都有顯著的相關，且自我概念清晰度與主觀幸福感有一正向關連性，相反的與情緒表達衝突有一顯著負向關連性，完全符合假設。
其次令主觀幸福感為依變項，情緒表達衝突、自我概念清晰度為獨變項，用Regression去預測主觀幸福感 (分析結果請參照表二)。從分析結果我們看到，在model 1，只有情緒表達衝突時一個predictor時，情緒表達衝突對於主觀幸福感有顯著的預測能力，但在model 2 我們將第二個predictor ─ 自我概念清晰度納入之後，情緒表達衝突預測主觀幸福感的效果就由顯著變為沒有顯著，且beta值由 -.348 變為 -.097。而自我概念清晰度則有顯著的預測能力，其beta值為.468。
(表一， s_clar = 自我概念清晰度、aeq =情緒表達衝突、well_be = 主觀幸福感。)
(表二， s_clar = 自我概念清晰度、aeq =情緒表達衝突、well_be = 主觀幸福感。依變項為主觀幸福感，獨變項為情緒表達衝突和自我概念清晰度。)
(三) 討論
研究一的結果符合假設預期，主觀幸福感和情緒表達衝突若要相互影響，則必須透過自我概念清晰度的中介效果才能對彼此造成影響。亦即自我概念清晰度高的人其主觀幸福感較不容易受到情緒表達衝突的負面影響，相反的自我概念清晰度低則容易受到情緒表達衝突的負面影響。
儘管結果符合預期，但這時還有一個問題無法解決，就是我們不能確定自我概念清晰度是否有它獨特的效果。Baumgardner (1993)認為自我概念的不確定導致個體更容易受到所處情境中的負面資訊影響，進而導致自尊的降低和加各種負向的感受。因此我們可以推論是因為自尊的影響才使得自我概念清晰度有它的效果。所以在研究二中，我們想要去探討自尊在此中介歷程當中扮演的角色。
四、研究二
在所有的自我指標中自尊是個最全面性的指標也是歷來發展最為完整的概念，且與正向的自我指標皆有高度的正向關連性。在研究一中我們確立了自我概念清晰度確實擁有一中介效果，我們想要再更進一步去檢驗這個中介效果是否受到自尊的影響。因此在研究二中，我們使用自陳量表檢驗自我清晰度、情緒表達衝突、主觀幸福感和自尊的程度，並去觀測在自尊變項存在於迴歸方程式中的情況下，自我概念清晰度的中介效果是否會被混淆。研究者預期自我概念清晰度應有它的獨特效果，且此獨特效果不會受到其他自我指標的影響。
(一) 方法
1.參與者與施測程序：
研究二的參與者為國立台灣大學修習「社會心理學」的學生約106人。是自願參加施測以獲得課堂加分。施測的方式是團體施測，填寫情緒表達衝突量表、自我概念清晰度量表和主觀幸福感量表的紙筆問卷。最後用SPSS統計分析軟體分析資料。
2.測量工具：
Rosenberg 自尊量表
採用Rosenberg 自尊量表 (1979)加以翻譯。Rosenberg在許多變項中找出與自尊最具相關的十個題目組合成了這套量表，並且正負向題各一半(1、2、6、8、10是正向題；3、4、5、7、9是負向題)，旨在幫助「一般人」能藉由自我的評估而知道自己自尊的程度。計分方式為各題得分相加，反向題分數則分數相反來計算，則總分越高則表示自尊越高。
自我概念清晰度量表
自我概念清晰度量表(Campbell et al. 1996) 主要測量個體的自我概念結構是否清楚、一致且穩定，亦即個體對自我的瞭解是否清晰、明確。是否一致且不相互矛盾，且是否具有跨時間的穩定性。題目如「有時候我對別人的瞭解，更甚於對自己的瞭解。」、「我對於自己的看法常常會互相矛盾」、「我對於自己的看法可能今天是一種，但明天又是另一種。」量表共有十二題，因素結構顯示為單一因素，以李克氏六點量表評量，1代表非常不符合，6代表非常符合，在反向計分之後，分數越高表示自我概念越清晰，量表內部一致性信度為.89
情緒表達衝突量表
採用李怡真(2002)翻譯自King & Emmons 的情緒衝突量表(Ambivalence over emotion expression questionnaire, AEQ)。此量表共28題，所有題目的架構，均由兩個衝突的想法構成，這也是情緒表達衝突最核心的想法。主要的題目類型可以分成三種：一、掩飾情緒(如：我會努力保持臉上的微笑，來讓他覺得我很快樂，即使我心裡並不是如此)。二、表達了之後卻感到不舒服(如：當我對他表達生氣的情緒之後，我會覺得有罪惡感)。三、對於要不要分享感覺的衝突(如：我通常會試著隱藏在內心的害怕和感覺，但有時候我也會想要讓他知道)。由於題目本身具有複雜的概念存在，為避免受試者填答上的混淆，所有題目都設計為正向題，不需反向計分。內部一致性係數 Cronbach alpha 為0.89 ，六週後的再測信度為0.78。
主觀幸福感量表
採用陸洛&施建彬(1995)編制的「中國人幸福感量表」為研究工具。量表題目來源分為兩大部分，其中28題翻譯、修訂自 Argyle (1987)的牛津幸福量表(Oxford Happiness Inventory，簡稱 OHI)、生活滿意量表及正向情感量表組成。另二十題由陸洛&施建彬自編。在理論建構上，本量表題項不僅包括世界共通性的幸福感來源，也包含了華人特有的幸福感來源，其內部一致性 Combach's alpha 係數為.95 ，再測信度為.66。之後此量表又發展出精簡版的量表，共有二十題。與完整版量表的相關為.97，P< .05 ，故本研究採取精簡版版本。
(二) 結果
分析資料的結果顯示自尊和自我概念清晰確實有顯著的高度正向關連性，其相關係數為.629。且其餘變項的關係也和研究一一致主觀幸福感和情緒表達衝突有 -.360的顯著相關、主觀幸福感和自我概念清晰度有.552的顯著相關，情緒表達衝突和自我概念清晰度有-.468的顯著相關(分析結果請參照表三)。
我們重新用迴歸檢驗研究一的結果，結果和研究一一致(分析結果請參照表四)。model 1，只有情緒表達衝突時一個predictor時，情緒表達衝突對於主觀幸福感有顯著的預測能力 (beta = -.360 、P<.05)。model 2 我們將第二個predictor ─ 自我概念清晰度納入之後，情緒表達衝突預測主觀幸福感的效果就由顯著變為沒有顯著(beta值由 -.360 變為 -.104。P由<.05變為>.05)。而自我概念清晰度則有顯著的預測能力(beta=.547、P<.001)。
在model3，放入第三個predictor ─ 自尊(self esteem)，情緒表達衝突的預測效果依舊不顯著(beta = -.061、P > .05)，自尊和自我概念清晰度都有顯著的預測效果。(自我概念清晰度 beta = .300、P < .05。自尊 beta = .405、P<.001)。
有趣的是，當我們把自尊和自我概念清晰度調換，將自尊在model2放入，而將自我概念清晰度於model3才放入時，其結果與先前的結果有相同的模式。
(表三， s_clar = 自我概念清晰度、aeq =情緒表達衝突、well_be = 主觀幸福感、ses = 自尊指標。)
(表四， s_clar = 自我概念清晰度、aeq =情緒表達衝突、well_be = 主觀幸福感、ses = 自尊指標。依變項為主觀幸福感，獨變項為情緒表達衝突、自我概念清晰度及自尊。)
(三) 討論
研究二的結果符合假設預期，自我概念清晰度的中介效果並不會因為自尊加到迴歸方程式而失去效果。同時也發現自尊也具有對情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介效果。筆者推論，這兩個變項都具有中介的效果，但透過不同的機制影響情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感。也就是情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感間存在兩個平行的中介機制。
五、綜合討論
綜合研究一及研究二的結果，我們可以推論自我概念清晰度確實為情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介變項且情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感間同時存在兩種以上不同的中介機制，自尊擁有獨立於自我概念清晰度之外的另一中介效果。這樣的機制，使得我們更瞭解情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感之間的關係，也知道該怎麼去改善情緒表達衝突對於主觀幸福感的負向影響。我們可以藉由提升自我概念的確定性來提升主觀幸福感，並降低情緒表達衝突的負面影響。由此結果可知提升自我確定性的方法是必要的且必須由後續的研究去發展。
在研究的過程中亦發現，情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感的中介機制可能遠比我們想像中複雜，自尊和自我概念清晰度同時擁有各自的中介效果，這代表情緒表達衝突和主觀幸福感間可能存在更多不同的中介機制，而未來我們可以嘗試去找到更多的中介機制，並比較出最有效果的機制以助我們發展出提升主觀幸福感的最佳策略。